tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-41355983692441920462024-03-13T20:57:17.106-07:00Public International LawRalph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.comBlogger28125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-25312385114594047172008-10-04T07:31:00.000-07:002008-10-04T07:57:56.762-07:00New Agenda of United Nation Assembly<h2 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" class="BlackHead"><span style="font-size:100%;">Myanmar issues call at General Assembly for lifting of ‘immoral’ sanctions</span></h2><div id="PhotoHolder" style="width: 180px; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><img src="http://www.un.org/News/dh/photos/2008/199373-myanmar.jpg" title="U Nyan Win, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Union of Myanmar" border="1" /><p class="phtocaption">U Nyan Win, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Union of Myanmar</p></div><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" class="fullstory" >29 September 2008 – Myanmar could become the rice bowl of its region and provide energy to other countries if “immoral” sanctions against it were lifted, the country’s Foreign Minister told the General Assembly today.<p> Speaking to the final day of the Assembly’s annual General Debate, U Nyan Win <a href="http://www.un.org/ga/63/generaldebate/myanmar.shtml">said</a> the sanctions imposed by certain States against Myanmar were unwarranted.</p><p> “Unilateral sanctions are also against international law,” he said. “They are not only unfair but immoral. They are counter-productive and deprive the countries of their right to development.”</p><p> Myanmar has enough land and natural resources to “make a meaningful contribution to [the] energy and food security of our country and beyond,” but to do this it need free access to markets, modern technology and investment, he stressed.</p><p> “<span class="pullme">The sooner the unjust sanctions are revoked and the barriers removed, the sooner will the country be in a position to become the rice bowl of the region and a reliable source of energy.</span>”</p><blockquote>The sooner the unjust sanctions are revoked and the barriers removed, the sooner will the country be in a position to become the rice bowl of the region and a reliable source of energy.</blockquote><p> The Foreign Minister said political and social progress could only ever be achieved through development, rather than coercive economic measures.</p><p> “Such measures only serve to worsen the plight of the people, particularly the most vulnerable among them, women and children.”</p><p> Turning to the issue of national reconciliation, Mr. Win said his country was making resolute efforts towards that end, pursuing dialogue with dozens of different groups.</p><p> “Our endeavours have resulted in the return to the legal fold of 17 armed groups. We have effectively put an end to the decades-long insurgency. Peace and stability now prevails in almost all parts of the country.”</p><p> He noted that a draft national constitution had been approved by voters in May following a national convention, adding that general elections have been scheduled for 2010.</p><p> “Necessary measures are being undertaken for the elections. All citizens, regardless of political affiliation, will have equal rights to form political parties and to conduct election campaigns. The Government will make every effort to ensure that the elections will be free and fair.”</p><p> On Saturday, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and his Special Adviser Ibrahim Gambari held a meeting with the Group of Friends on Myanmar, which comprises 14 countries and one regional bloc.</p><p> The members of the group unanimously voiced their strong support for the Secretary-General’s good offices on the issue and encouraged Myanmar’s Government to work more closely with the United Nations on issues of concern, such as the release of the long-detained political prisoner Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and inclusive dialogue with the opposition.</p><p><br /></p></span><b style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><b>Mottaki discusses major issues with UN chief<br /><br /></b> </b><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="javascript:PopupPic('10426/02_MOTTAKI.jpg%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20')"><img src="http://www.tehrantimes.com/News/10426/02_MOTTAKI.jpg" width="250" border="1" hspace="5" /></a><br /> <p dir="ltr" class="Title_Big_News" style="margin-left: 6px; margin-right: 6px; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <b> <b> </b></b>In a meeting on the sidelines of the 63rd UN General Assembly session, Mottaki and Ban exchanged views on crises in Georgia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon and Palestine.<br /></p><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Mottaki stressed the key role Iran has played in settling major regional crises.<br /><br />He regretted that the Palestine conflict has not been solved despite the presentation of over 100 peace plans or initiatives and UN resolutions on the conflict.<br /><br /> Mottaki also called the recent UN Security Council's resolution against Iran as a ‘showoff’.<br />Ban pointed to the international body's stand over Iran's nuclear standoff with the West and called for continued negotiations over the issue. He also hailed Tehran's positive role in settling regional and international crises.<br /><br /><br /></span></span><span style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="storyhead" style="font-size:130%;"><b>Market crisis: Miguel for renewed faith in value of regulation</b></span> </span><p style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <span style="margin-left: 2pt;">United Nations (PTI): Seeking solidarity between individuals and governments and a renewed faith in the value of regulation to resolve the economic problems, UN General Assembly President Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann has said unrestrained worship of the market has led to the current worldwide financial crisis. </span></p><p style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <span style="margin-left: 2pt;">"We are reaping the consequences of the idolatry," Brockmann said at a press conference held to take stock of the issues raised during the just-concluded high-level segment of the 192-member Assembly. </span></p><p style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <span style="margin-left: 2pt;">He said the failure of the markets to correct the problems that have emerged over the past year taught an important lesson -- blind trust in the markets will only lead to trouble. </span></p><p style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <span style="margin-left: 2pt;">Brockmann said solidarity was needed to overcome the crisis and to ensure that any response from policymakers was ethical and responsible and took into account the needs of the poorest, and not just financial institutions. </span></p><p style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <span style="margin-left: 2pt;">He stressed that unity should be viewed as the guiding principle in all political, economic and individual life. </span></p><p style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> <span style="margin-left: 2pt;">The President described his early efforts to build unity among member states, while responding to numerous questions about "hot potato" issues. </span></p> <span style="margin-left: 2pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;">In response to a question on democracy and human rights in Myanmar, he described his role as that of a facilitator, supporting member states as they sought a viable way to help "our brothers and sisters" in Myanmar. </span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-5475815807915807492008-09-27T17:37:00.001-07:002008-09-27T17:46:37.183-07:00Vienna Convention on Laws of Treaties Relations (1969)<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 1</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Scope of the present Convention</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The present Convention applies to treaties between States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 2</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Use of terms</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. For the purposes of the present Convention:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) 'treaty' means an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular designation;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) 'ratification', 'acceptance', 'approval' and 'accession' mean in each case the international act so named whereby a State establishes on the international plane its consent to be bound by a treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) 'full powers' means a document emanating from the competent authority of a State designating a person or persons to represent the State for negotiating, adopting or authenticating the text of a treaty, for expressing the consent of the State to be bound by a treaty, or for accomplishing any other act with respect to a treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(d) 'reservation' means a unilateral statement, however phrased or named, made by a State, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty, whereby it purports to exclude or to modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in their application to that State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(e) 'negotiating State' means a State which took part in the drawing up and adoption of the text of the treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(f) 'contracting State' means a State which has consented to be bound by the treaty, whether or not the treaty has entered into force;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(g) 'party' means a State which has consented to be bound by the treaty and for which the treaty is in force;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(h) 'third State' means a State not a party to the treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(i) 'international organization' means an intergovernmental organization. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The provisions of paragraph 1 regarding the use of terms in the present Convention are without prejudice to the use of those terms or to the meanings which may be given to them in the internal law of any State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 3</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: International agreements not within the scope of the present Convention</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The fact that the present Convention does not apply to international agreements concluded between States and other subjects of international law or between such other subjects of international law, or to international agreements not in written form, shall not affect:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the legal force of such agreements;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the application to them of any of the rules set forth in the present Convention to which they would be subject under international law independently of the Convention;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) the application of the Convention to the relations of States as between themselves under international agreements to which other subjects of international law are also parties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 4</span>:<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"> Non-retroactivity of the present Convention</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Without prejudice to the application of any rules set forth in the present Convention to which treaties would be subject under international law independently of the Convention, the Convention applies only to treaties which are concluded by States after the entry into force of the present Convention with regard to such States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 5</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Treaties constituting international organizations and treaties adopted within an international organization</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The present Convention applies to any treaty which is the constituent instrument of an international organization and to any treaty adopted within an international organization without prejudice to any relevant rules of the organization.</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Part II: Conclusion and Entry into Force of Treaties</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 1. CONCLUSION OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 6</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Capacity of States to conclude treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Every State possesses capacity to conclude treaties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 7</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Full powers</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A person is considered as representing a State for the purpose of adopting or authenticating the text of a treaty or for the purpose of expressing the consent of the State to be bound by a treaty if:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) he produces appropriate full powers; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it appears from the practice of the States concerned or from other circumstances that their intention was to consider that person as representing the State for such purposes and to dispense with full powers.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. In virtue of their functions and without having to produce full powers, the following are considered as representing their State:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) Heads of State, Heads of Government and Ministers for Foreign Affairs, for the purpose of performing all acts relating to the conclusion of a treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) heads of diplomatic missions, for the purpose of adopting the text of a treaty between the accrediting State and the State to which they are accredited;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) representatives accredited by States to an international conference or to an international organization or one of its organs, for the purpose of adopting the text of a treaty in that conference, organization or organ.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 8</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Subsequent confirmation of an act performed without authorization</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">An act relating to the conclusion of a treaty performed by a person who cannot be considered under article 7 as authorized to represent a State for that purpose is without legal effect unless afterwards confirmed by that State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 9</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Adoption of the text</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. The adoption of the text of a treaty takes place by the consent of all the States participating in its drawing up except as provided in paragraph 2.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The adoption of the text of a treaty at an international conference takes place by the vote of two-thirds of the States present and voting, unless by the same majority they shall decide to apply a different rule.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 10</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">:Authentication of the text</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The text of a treaty is established as authentic and definitive:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) by such procedure as may be provided for in the text or agreed upon by the States participating in its drawing up; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) failing such procedure, by the signature, signature ad referendum or initialling by the representatives of those States of the text of the treaty or of the Final Act of a conference incorporating the text.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 11</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Means of expressing consent to be bound by a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The consent of a State to be bound by a treaty may be expressed by signature, exchange of instruments constituting a treaty, ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, or by any other means if so agreed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 12</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consent to be bound by a treaty expressed by signature</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. The consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is expressed by the signature of its representative when:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the treaty provides that signature shall have that effect;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it is otherwise established that the negotiating States were agreed that signature should have that effect; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) the intention of the State to give that effect to the signature appears from the full powers of its representative or was expressed during the negotiation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. For the purposes of paragraph 1:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the initialling of a text constitutes a signature of the treaty when it is established that the negotiating States so agreed;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the signature ad referendum of a treaty by a representative, if confirmed by his State, constitutes a full signature of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 13</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consent to be bound by a treaty expressed by an exchange of instruments constituting a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The consent of States to be bound by a treaty constituted by instruments exchanged between them is expressed by that exchange when:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the instruments provide that their exchange shall have that effect; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it is otherwise established that those States were agreed that the exchange of instruments should have that effect.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 14</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consent to be bound by a treaty expressed by ratification, acceptance or approval</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. The consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is expressed by ratification when:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the treaty provides for such consent to be expressed by means of ratification;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it is otherwise established that the negotiating States were agreed that ratification should be required;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) the representative of the State has signed the treaty subject to ratification; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(d) the intention of the State to sign the treaty subject to ratification appears from the full powers of its representative or was expressed during the negotiation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is expressed by acceptance or approval under conditions similar to those which apply to ratification.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 15</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consent to be bound by a treaty expressed by accession</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is expressed by accession when:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the treaty provides that such consent may be expressed by that State by means of accession;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it is otherwise established that the negotiating States were agreed that such consent may be expressed by that State by means of accession; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) all the parties have subsequently agreed that such consent may be expressed by that State by means of accession.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 16</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Exchange or deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Unless the treaty otherwise provides, instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession establish the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty upon:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) their exchange between the contracting States;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) their deposit with the depositary; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) their notification to the contracting States or to the depositary, if so agreed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 17</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consent to be bound by part of a treaty and choice of differing provisions</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Without prejudice to articles 19 to 23, the consent of a State to be bound by part of a treaty is effective only if the treaty so permits or the other contracting States so agree.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The consent of a State to be bound by a treaty which permits a choice between differing provisions is effective only if it is made clear to which of the provisions the consent relates.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 18</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Obligation not to defeat the object and purpose of a treaty prior to its entry into force</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A State is obliged to refrain from acts which would defeat the object and purpose of a treaty when:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) it has signed the treaty or has exchanged instruments constituting the treaty subject to ratification, acceptance or approval, until it shall have made its intention clear not to become a party to the treaty; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it has expressed its consent to be bound by the treaty, pending the entry into force of the treaty and provided that such entry into force is not unduly delayed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 2. RESERVATIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 19</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Formulation of reservations</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A State may, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty, formulate a reservation unless:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the reservation is prohibited by the treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the treaty provides that only specified reservations, which do not include the reservation in question, may be made; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) in cases not falling under sub-paragraphs (a) and (b), the reservation is incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 20</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Acceptance of and objection to reservations</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A reservation expressly authorized by a treaty does not require any subsequent acceptance by the other contracting States unless the treaty so provides.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. When it appears from the limited number of the negotiating States and the object and purpose of a treaty that the application of the treaty in its entirety between all the parties is an essential condition of the consent of each one to be bound by the treaty, a reservation requires acceptance by all the parties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. When a treaty is a constituent instrument of an international organization and unless it otherwise provides, a reservation requires the acceptance of the competent organ of that organization.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. In cases not falling under the preceding paragraphs and unless the treaty otherwise provides:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) acceptance by another contracting State of a reservation constitutes the reserving State a party to the treaty in relation to that other State if or when the treaty is in force for those States;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) an objection by another contracting State to a reservation does not preclude the entry into force of the treaty as between the objecting and reserving States unless a contrary intention is definitely expressed by the objecting State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) an act expressing a State's consent to be bound by the treaty and containing a reservation is effective as soon as at least one other contracting State has accepted the reservation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">5. For the purposes of paragraphs 2 and 4 and unless the treaty otherwise provides, a reservation is considered to have been accepted by a State if it shall have raised no objection to the reservation by the end of a period of twelve months after it was notified of the reservation or by the date on which it expressed its consent to be bound by the treaty, whichever is later.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 21</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Legal effects of reservations and of objections to reservations</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A reservation established with regard to another party in accordance with articles 19, 20 and 23:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) modifies for the reserving State in its relations with that other party the provisions of the treaty to which the reservation relates to the extent of the reservation; and</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) modifies those provisions to the same extent for that other party in its relations with the reserving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The reservation does not modify the provisions of the treaty for the other parties to the treaty inter se.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. When a State objecting to a reservation has not opposed the entry into force of the treaty between itself and the reserving State, the provisions to which the reservation relates do not apply as between the two States to the extent of the reservation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 22</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Withdrawal of reservations and of objections to reservations</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Unless the treaty otherwise provides, a reservation may be withdrawn at any time and the consent of a State which has accepted the reservation is not required for its withdrawal.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Unless the treaty otherwise provides, an objection to a reservation may be withdrawn at any time.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. Unless the treaty otherwise provides, or it is otherwise agreed:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the withdrawal of a reservation becomes operative in relation to another contracting State only when notice of it has been received by that State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the withdrawal of an objection to a reservation becomes operative only when notice of it has been received by the State which formulated the reservation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 23</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Procedure regarding reservations</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A reservation, an express acceptance of a reservation and an objection to a reservation must be formulated in writing and communicated to the contracting States and other States entitled to become parties to the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. If formulated when signing the treaty subject to ratification, acceptance or approval, a reservation must be formally confirmed by the reserving State when expressing its consent to be bound by the treaty. In such a case the reservation shall be considered as having been made on the date of its confirmation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. An express acceptance of, or an objection to, a reservation made previously to confirmation of the reservation does not itself require confirmation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. The withdrawal of a reservation or of an objection to a reservation must be formulated in writing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 3. ENTRY INTO FORCE AND PROVISIONAL APPLICATION OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 24</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Entry into force</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A treaty enters into force in such manner and upon such date as it may provide or as the negotiating States may agree.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Failing any such provision or agreement, a treaty enters into force as soon as consent to be bound by the treaty has been established for all the negotiating States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. When the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is established on a date after the treaty has come into force, the treaty enters into force for that State on that date, unless the treaty otherwise provides.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. The provisions of a treaty regulating the authentication of its text, the establishment of the consent of States to be bound by the treaty, the manner or date of its entry into force, reservations, the functions of the depositary and other matters arising necessarily before the entry into force of the treaty apply from the time of the adoption of its text.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 25</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Provisional application</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A treaty or a part of a treaty is applied provisionally pending its entry into force if:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the treaty itself so provides; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the negotiating States have in some other manner so agreed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Unless the treaty otherwise provides or the negotiating States have otherwise agreed, the provisional application of a treaty or a part of a treaty with respect to a State shall be terminated if that State notifies the other States between which the treaty is being applied provisionally of its intention not to become a party to the treaty.</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Part III: Observance, Application and Interpretation of Treaties</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 1. OBSERVANCE OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 26</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Pacta sunt servanda</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 27</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Internal law and observance of treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty. This rule is without prejudice to article 46.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 2. APPLICATION OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 28</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Non-retroactivity of treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Unless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, its provisions do not bind a party in relation to any act or fact which took place or any situation which ceased to exist before the date of the entry into force of the treaty with respect to that party.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 29</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Territorial scope of treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Unless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, a treaty is binding upon each party in respect of its entire territory.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 30</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Application of successive treaties relating to the same subject-matter</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Subject to Article 103 of the Charter of the United Nations, the rights and obligations of States parties to successive treaties relating to the same subject-matter shall be determined in accordance with the following paragraphs.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. When a treaty specifies that it is subject to, or that it is not to be considered as incompatible with, an earlier or later treaty, the provisions of that other treaty prevail.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. When all the parties to the earlier treaty are parties also to the later treaty but the earlier treaty is not terminated or suspended in operation under article 59, the earlier treaty applies only to the extent that its provisions are compatible with those of the latter treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. When the parties to the later treaty do not include all the parties to the earlier one:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) as between States parties to both treaties the same rule applies as in paragraph 3;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) as between a State party to both treaties and a State party to only one of the treaties, the treaty to which both States are parties governs their mutual rights and obligations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">5. Paragraph 4 is without prejudice to article 41, or to any question of the termination or suspension of the operation of a treaty under article 60 or to any question of responsibility which may arise for a State from the conclusion or application of a treaty the provisions of which are incompatible with its obligations towards another State under another treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 3. INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 31</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: General rule of interpretation</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The context for the purpose of the interpretation of a treaty shall comprise, in addition to the text, including its preamble and annexes:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) any agreement relating to the treaty which was made between all the parties in connection with the conclusion of the treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) any instrument which was made by one or more parties in connection with the conclusion of the treaty and accepted by the other parties as an instrument related to the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. There shall be taken into account, together with the context:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) any subsequent agreement between the parties regarding the interpretation of the treaty or the application of its provisions;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) any subsequent practice in the application of the treaty which establishes the agreement of the parties regarding its interpretation;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. A special meaning shall be given to a term if it is established that the parties so intended.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 32</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Supplementary means of interpretation</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Recourse may be had to supplementary means of interpretation, including the preparatory work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion, in order to confirm the meaning resulting from the application of article 31, or to determine the meaning when the interpretation according to article 31:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) leaves the meaning ambiguous or obscure; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) leads to a result which is manifestly absurd or unreasonable.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 33</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Interpretation of treaties authenticated in two or more languages</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. When a treaty has been authenticated in two or more languages, the text is equally authoritative in each language, unless the treaty provides or the parties agree that, in case of divergence, a particular text shall prevail.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A version of the treaty in a language other than one of those in which the text was authenticated shall be considered an authentic text only if the treaty so provides or the parties so agree.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. The terms of the treaty are presumed to have the same meaning in each authentic text.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. Except where a particular text prevails in accordance with paragraph 1, when a comparison of the authentic texts discloses a difference of meaning which the application of articles 31 and 32 does not remove, the meaning which best reconciles the texts, having regard to the object and purpose of the treaty, shall be adopted.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 4. TREATIES AND THIRD STATES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 34</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: General rule regarding third States</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A treaty does not create either obligations or rights for a third State without its consent.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 35</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Treaties providing for obligations for third States</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">An obligation arises for a third State from a provision of a treaty if the parties to the treaty intend the provision to be the means of establishing the obligation and the third State expressly accepts that obligation in writing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 36</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Treaties providing for rights for third States</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A right arises for a third State from a provision of a treaty if the parties to the treaty intend the provision to accord that right either to the third State, or to a group of States to which it belongs, or to all States, and the third State assents thereto. Its assent shall be presumed so long as the contrary is not indicated, unless the treaty otherwise provides.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A State exercising a right in accordance with paragraph 1 shall comply with the conditions for its exercise provided for in the treaty or established in conformity with the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 37</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Revocation or modification of obligations or rights of third States</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. When an obligation has arisen for a third State in conformity with article 35, the obligation may be revoked or modified only with the consent of the parties to the treaty and of the third State, unless it is established that they had otherwise agreed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. When a right has arisen for a third State in conformity with article 36, the right may not be revoked or modified by the parties if it is established that the right was intended not to be revocable or subject to modification without the consent of the third State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 38</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Rules in a treaty becoming binding on third States through international custom</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Nothing in articles 34 to 37 precludes a rule set forth in a treaty from becoming binding upon a third State as a customary rule of international law, recognized as such.</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Part IV: Amendment and Modification of Treaties</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 39</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: General rule regarding the amendment of treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A treaty may be amended by agreement between the parties. The rules laid down in Part II apply to such an agreement except in so far as the treaty may otherwise provide.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 40</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Amendment of multilateral treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Unless the treaty otherwise provides, the amendment of multilateral treaties shall be governed by the following paragraphs.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Any proposal to amend a multilateral treaty as between all the parties must be notified to all the contracting States, each one of which shall have the right to take part in:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the decision as to the action to be taken in regard to such proposal;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the negotiation and conclusion of any agreement for the amendment of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. Every State entitled to become a party to the treaty shall also be entitled to become a party to the treaty as amended.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. The amending agreement does not bind any State already a party to the treaty which does not become a party to the amending agreement; article 30, paragraph 4(b), applies in relation to such State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">5. Any State which becomes a party to the treaty after the entry into force of the amending agreement shall, failing an expression of a different intention by that State:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) be considered as a party to the treaty as amended; and</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) be considered as a party to the unamended treaty in relation to any party to the treaty not bound by the amending agreement.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 41</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Agreements to modify multilateral treaties between certain of the parties only</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Two or more of the parties to a multilateral treaty may conclude an agreement to modify the treaty as between themselves alone if:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the possibility of such a modification is provided for by the treaty; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the modification in question is not prohibited by the treaty and:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">- (i) does not affect the enjoyment by the other parties of their rights under the treaty or the performance of their obligations;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">- (ii) does not relate to a provision, derogation from which is incompatible with the effective execution of the object and purpose of the treaty as a whole.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Unless in a case falling under paragraph 1(a) the treaty otherwise provides, the parties in question shall notify the other parties of their intention to conclude the agreement and of the modification to the treaty for which it provides.</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Part V: Invalidity, Termination and Suspension of the Operation of Treaties</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 1. GENERAL PROVISIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 42</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Validity and continuance in force of treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. The validity of a treaty or of the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty may be impeached only through the application of the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The termination of a treaty, its denunciation or the withdrawal of a party, may take place only as a result of the application of the provisions of the treaty or of the present Convention. The same rule applies to suspension of the operation of a treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 43</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Obligations imposed by international law independently of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The invalidity, termination or denunciation of a treaty, the withdrawal of a party from it, or the suspension of its operation, as a result of the application of the present Convention or of the provisions of the treaty, shall not in any way impair the duty of any State to fulfil any obligation embodied in the treaty to which it would be subject under international law independently of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 44</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Separability of treaty provisions</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A right of a party, provided for in a treaty or arising under article 56, to denounce, withdraw from or suspend the operation of the treaty may be exercised only with respect to the whole treaty unless the treaty otherwise provides or the parties otherwise agree.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A ground for invalidating, terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation of a treaty recognized in the present Convention may be invoked only with respect to the whole treaty except as provided in the following paragraphs or in article 60.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. If the ground relates solely to particular clauses, it may be invoked only with respect to those clauses where:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the said clauses are separable from the remainder of the treaty with regard to their application;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it appears from the treaty or is otherwise established that acceptance of those clauses was not an essential basis of the consent of the other party or parties to be bound by the treaty as a whole; and</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) continued performance of the remainder of the treaty would not be unjust.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. In cases falling under articles 49 and 50 the State entitled to invoke the fraud or corruption may do so with respect either to the whole treaty or, subject to paragraph 3, to the particular clauses alone.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">5. In cases falling under articles 51, 52 and 53, no separation of the provisions of the treaty is permitted.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 45</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Loss of a right to invoke a ground for invalidating, terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A State may no longer invoke a ground for invalidating, terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation of a treaty under articles 46 to 50 or articles 60 and 62 if, after becoming aware of the facts:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) it shall have expressly agreed that the treaty is valid or remains in force or continues in operation, as the case may be; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) it must by reason of its conduct be considered as having acquiesced in the validity of the treaty or in its maintenance in force or in operation, as the case may be.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 2. INVALIDITY OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 46</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Provisions of internal law regarding competence to conclude treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A State may not invoke the fact that its consent to be bound by a treaty has been expressed in violation of a provision of its internal law regarding competence to conclude treaties as invalidating its consent unless that violation was manifest and concerned a rule of its internal law of fundamental importance.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A violation is manifest if it would be objectively evident to any State conducting itself in the matter in accordance with normal practice and in good faith.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 47</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Specific restrictions on authority to express the consent of a State</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">If the authority of a representative to express the consent of a State to be bound by a particular treaty has been made subject to a specific restriction, his omission to observe that restriction may not be invoked as invalidating the consent expressed by him unless the restriction was notified to the other negotiating States prior to his expressing such consent.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 48</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Error</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A State may invoke an error in a treaty as invalidating its consent to be bound by the treaty if the error relates to a fact or situation which was assumed by that State to exist at the time when the treaty was concluded and formed an essential basis of its consent to be bound by the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Paragraph 1 shall not apply if the State in question contributed by its own conduct to the error or if the circumstances were such as to put that State on notice of a possible error.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. An error relating only to the wording of the text of a treaty does not affect its validity; article 79 then applies.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 49</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Fraud</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">If a State has been induced to conclude a treaty by the fraudulent conduct of another negotiating State, the State may invoke the fraud as invalidating its consent to be bound by the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 50</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Corruption of a representative of a State</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">If the expression of a State's consent to be bound by a treaty has been procured through the corruption of its representative directly or indirectly by another negotiating State, the State may invoke such corruption as invalidating its consent to be bound by the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 51</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Coercion of a representative of a State</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The expression of a State's consent to be bound by a treaty which has been procured by the coercion of its representative through acts or threats directed against him shall be without any legal effect.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 52</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Coercion of a State by the threat or use of force</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A treaty is void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force in violation of the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 53</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Treaties conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law. For the purposes of the present Convention, a peremptory norm of general international law is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 3. TERMINATION AND SUSPENSION OF THE OPERATION OF TREATIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 54</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Termination of or withdrawal from a treaty under its provisions or by consent of the parties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The termination of a treaty or the withdrawal of a party may take place:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) in conformity with the provisions of the treaty; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) at any time by consent of all the parties after consultation with the other contracting States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 55</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Reduction of the parties to a multilateral treaty below the number necessary for its entry into force</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Unless the treaty otherwise provides, a multilateral treaty does not terminate by reason only of the fact that the number of the parties falls below the number necessary for its entry into force.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 56</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Denunciation of or withdrawal from a treaty containing no provision regarding termination, denunciation or withdrawal</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A treaty which contains no provision regarding its termination and which does not provide for denunciation or withdrawal is not subject to denunciation or withdrawal unless:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) it is established that the parties intended to admit the possibility of denunciation or withdrawal; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) a right of denunciation or withdrawal may be implied by the nature of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A party shall give not less than twelve months' notice of its intention to denounce or withdraw from a treaty under paragraph 1.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 57</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Suspension of the operation of a treaty under its provisions or by consent of the parties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The operation of a treaty in regard to all the parties or to a particular party may be suspended:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) in conformity with the provisions of the treaty; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) at any time by consent of all the parties after consultation with the other contracting States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 58</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Suspension of the operation of a multilateral treaty by agreement between certain of the parties only</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Two or more parties to a multilateral treaty may conclude an agreement to suspend the operation of provisions of the treaty, temporarily and as between themselves alone, if:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the possibility of such a suspension is provided for by the treaty; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the suspension in question is not prohibited by the treaty and:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">- (i) does not affect the enjoyment by the other parties of their rights under the treaty or the performance of their obligations;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">- (ii) is not incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Unless in a case falling under paragraph 1(a) the treaty otherwise provides, the parties in question shall notify the other parties of their intention to conclude the agreement and of those provisions of the treaty the operation of which they intend to suspend.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 59</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Termination or suspension of the operation of a treaty implied by conclusion of a later treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A treaty shall be considered as terminated if all the parties to it conclude a later treaty relating to the same subject-matter and:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) it appears from the later treaty or is otherwise established that the parties intended that the matter should be governed by that treaty; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the provisions of the later treaty are so far incompatible with those of the earlier one that the two treaties are not capable of being applied at the same time.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. The earlier treaty shall be considered as only suspended in operation if it appears from the later treaty or is otherwise established that such was the intention of the parties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 60</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Termination or suspension of the operation of a treaty as a consequence of its breach</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A material breach of a bilateral treaty by one of the parties entitles the other to invoke the breach as a ground for terminating the treaty or suspending its operation in whole or in part.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A material breach of a multilateral treaty by one of the parties entitles:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the other parties by unanimous agreement to suspend the operation of the treaty in whole or in part or to terminate it either:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">- (i) in the relations between themselves and the defaulting State, or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">- (ii) as between all the parties;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) a party specially affected by the breach to invoke it as a ground for suspending the operation of the treaty in whole or in part in the relations between itself and the defaulting State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(c) any party other than the defaulting State to invoke the breach as a ground for suspending the operation of the treaty in whole or in part with respect to itself if the treaty is of such a character that a material breach of its provisions by one party radically changes the position of every party with respect to the further performance of its obligations under the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. A material breach of a treaty, for the purposes of this article, consists in:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) a repudiation of the treaty not sanctioned by the present Convention; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the violation of a provision essential to the accomplishment of the object or purpose of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. The foregoing paragraphs are without prejudice to any provision in the treaty applicable in the event of a breach.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">5. Paragraphs 1 to 3 do not apply to provisions relating to the protection of the human person contained in treaties of a humanitarian character, in particular to provisions prohibiting any form of reprisals against persons protected by such treaties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 61</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Supervening impossibility of performance</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A party may invoke the impossibility of performing a treaty as a ground for terminating or withdrawing from it if the impossibility results from the permanent disappearance or destruction of an object indispensable for the execution of the treaty. If the impossibility is temporary, it may be invoked only as a ground for suspending the operation of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Impossibility of performance may not be invoked by a party as a ground for terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation of a treaty if the impossibility is the result of a breach by that party either of an obligation under the treaty or of any other international obligation owed to any other party to the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 62</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Fundamental change of circumstances</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A fundamental change of circumstances which has occurred with regard to those existing at the time of the conclusion of a treaty, and which was not foreseen by the parties, may not be invoked as a ground for terminating or withdrawing from the treaty unless:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) the existence of those circumstances constituted an essential basis of the consent of the parties to be bound by the treaty; and</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) the effect of the change is radically to transform the extent of obligations still to be performed under the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. A fundamental change of circumstances may not be invoked as a ground for terminating or withdrawing from a treaty:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) if the treaty establishes a boundary; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) if the fundamental change is the result of a breach by the party invoking it either of an obligation under the treaty or of any other international obligation owed to any other party to the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. If, under the foregoing paragraphs, a party may invoke a fundamental change of circumstances as a ground for terminating or withdrawing from a treaty it may also invoke the change as a ground for suspending the operation of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 63</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Severance of diplomatic or consular relations</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The severance of diplomatic or consular relations between parties to a treaty does not affect the legal relations established between them by the treaty except in so far as the existence of diplomatic or consular relations is indispensable for the application of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 64</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">If a new peremptory norm of general international law emerges, any existing treaty which is in conflict with that norm becomes void and terminates.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 4. PROCEDURE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 65</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Procedure to be followed with respect to invalidity, termination, withdrawal from or suspension of the operation of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A party which, under the provisions of the present Convention, invokes either a defect in its consent to be bound by a treaty or a ground for impeaching the validity of a treaty, terminating it, withdrawing from it or suspending its operation, must notify the other parties of its claim. The notification shall indicate the measure proposed to be taken with respect to the treaty and the reasons therefor.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. If, after the expiry of a period which, except in cases of special urgency, shall not be less than three months after the receipt of the notification, no party has raised any objection, the party making the notification may carry out in the manner provided in article 67 the measure which it has proposed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. If, however, objection has been raised by any other party, the parties shall seek a solution through the means indicated in article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. Nothing in the foregoing paragraphs shall affect the rights or obligations of the parties under any provisions in force binding the parties with regard to the settlement of disputes.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">5. Without prejudice to article 45, the fact that a State has not previously made the notification prescribed in paragraph 1 shall not prevent it from making such notification in answer to another party claiming performance of the treaty or alleging its violation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 66</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Procedures for judicial settlement, arbitration and conciliation</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">If, under paragraph 3 of article 65, no solution has been reached within a period of 12 months following the date on which the objection was raised, the following procedures shall be followed:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) any one of the parties to a dispute concerning the application or the interpretation of articles 53 or 64 may, by a written application, submit it to the International Court of Justice for a decision unless the parties by common consent agree to submit the dispute to arbitration;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) any one of the parties to a dispute concerning the application or the interpretation of any of the other articles in Part V of the present Convention may set in motion the procedure specified in the Annex to the Convention by submitting a request to that effect to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 67</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Instruments for declaring invalid, terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. The notification provided for under article 65 paragraph 1 must be made in writing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. Any act declaring invalid, terminating, withdrawing from or suspending the operation of a treaty pursuant to the provisions of the treaty or of paragraphs 2 or 3 of article 65 shall be carried out through an instrument communicated to the other parties. If the instrument is not signed by the Head of State, Head of Government or Minister for Foreign Affairs, the representative of the State communicating it may be called upon to produce full powers.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 68</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Revocation of notifications and instruments provided for in articles 65 and 67</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">A notification or instrument provided for in articles 65 or 67 may be revoked at any time before it takes effect.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">SECTION 5. CONSEQUENCES OF THE INVALIDITY, TERMINATION OR SUSPENSION OF THE OPERATION OF A TREATY</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 69</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consequences of the invalidity of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. A treaty the invalidity of which is established under the present Convention is void. The provisions of a void treaty have no legal force.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. If acts have nevertheless been performed in reliance on such a treaty:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) each party may require any other party to establish as far as possible in their mutual relations the position that would have existed if the acts had not been performed;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) acts performed in good faith before the invalidity was invoked are not rendered unlawful by reason only of the invalidity of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">3. In cases falling under articles 49, 50, 51 or 52, paragraph 2 does not apply with respect to the party to which the fraud, the act of corruption or the coercion is imputable.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">4. In the case of the invalidity of a particular State's consent to be bound by a multilateral treaty, the foregoing rules apply in the relations between that State and the parties to the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 70</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consequences of the termination of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Unless the treaty otherwise provides or the parties otherwise agree, the termination of a treaty under its provisions or in accordance with the present Convention:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) releases the parties from any obligation further to perform the treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) does not affect any right, obligation or legal situation of the parties created through the execution of the treaty prior to its termination.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. If a State denounces or withdraws from a multilateral treaty, paragraph 1 applies in the relations between that State and each of the other parties to the treaty from the date when such denunciation or withdrawal takes effect.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 71</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consequences of the invalidity of a treaty which conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. In the case of a treaty which is void under article 53 the parties shall:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) eliminate as far as possible the consequences of any act performed in reliance on any provision which conflicts with the peremptory norm of general international law; and</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) bring their mutual relations into conformity with the peremptory norm of general international law.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. In the case of a treaty which becomes void and terminates under article 64, the termination of the treaty:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) releases the parties from any obligation further to perform the treaty;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) does not affect any right, obligation or legal situation of the parties created through the execution of the treaty prior to its termination; provided that those rights, obligations or situations may thereafter be maintained only to the extent that their maintenance is not in itself in conflict with the new peremptory norm of general international law.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 72</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Consequences of the suspension of the operation of a treaty</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">1. Unless the treaty otherwise provides or the parties otherwise agree, the suspension of the operation of a treaty under its provisions or in accordance with the present Convention:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(a) releases the parties between which the operation of the treaty is suspended from the obligation to perform the treaty in their mutual relations during the period of the suspension;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">(b) does not otherwise affect the legal relations between the parties established by the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">2. During the period of the suspension the parties shall refrain from acts tending to obstruct the resumption of the operation of the treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"> Part VI: Miscellaneous Provisions</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 73</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Cases of State succession, State responsibility and outbreak of hostilities</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The provisions of the present Convention shall not prejudge any question that may arise in regard to a treaty from a succession of States or from the international responsibility of a State or from the outbreak of hostilities between States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 74</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Diplomatic and consular relations and the conclusion of treaties</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The severance or absence of diplomatic or consular relations between two or more States does not prevent the conclusion of treaties between those States. The conclusion of a treaty does not in itself affect the situation in regard to diplomatic or consular relations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 75</span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">: Case of an aggressor State</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The provisions of the present Convention are without prejudice to any obligation in relation to a treaty which may arise for an aggressor State in consequence of measures taken in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations with reference to that State's aggression.</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Part VII: Depositaries, Notifications, Corrections and Registrati</span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-73295482155053172562008-09-27T01:02:00.000-07:002008-09-27T02:12:56.868-07:00Comparative Cases on the Law of Treaties<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-size:100%;" ><strong>1. Lim vs Executive Secretary<br /> G.R. No. 151445, Apr. 11, 2002</strong></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"><strong></strong></span> - In interpreting treaties the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which contains provisos governing interpretations of international agreements, state: i) a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith ill accordance with the ordinary meaning ii) in interpreting the purpose it shall comprise of any agreement and any instrument made iii) shall be taken into account, together with the context and iv) a special meaning to a term shall be given if intended by the parties.<br /><br /> - From the perspective of public international law, a treaty is favored over municipal law pursuant to the principle of pacta sunt servanda. Hence, "every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith." Further, a party to a treaty is not allowed to "invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty."<span style="font-size:100%;"><strong face="trebuchet ms" style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"><br /><br />2. Bayan vs Zamora </strong><strong face="trebuchet ms" style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"><br /> G.R. No. 138570, Oct. 10, 2000</strong></span><br /><br /><strong face="trebuchet ms"></strong><strong face="trebuchet ms"></strong></div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> - The issue her is whether or not the Visiting Forces Agreement entered by the Republic of the Philippines and the United Sates is constitutional or unconstitutional.<br /><br /> - The Supreme Court held that the Visiting Forces Agreement is constitutional having been duly concurred in by the Philippine Senate. The Republic of the Philippines cannot require the United States to submit the agreement to the US Senate for concurrence, for that would be giving a strict construction to the phrase "recognized as a treaty". US treats VFA as an executive agreement because as governed by international law, an executive agreement is just as binding as a treaty.<br /><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong face="trebuchet ms"></strong></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><strong style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);">3. Abaya vs Ebdane<br /> G.R. No. 167919, Feb. 14, 2007</strong></span><br /><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in; text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size:small;">- It is well to understand the definition of an “exchange of notes” under international law. The term is defined in the United Nations Treaty as a record of routine agreement that has many similarities with the private law contract. The agreement consists of the of the exchange of two documents, each of the parties being in the possession of the one signed by the representative of the other. Under the usual procedure, the accepting State to record its assent. The signatories of the letters may be government Ministers, diplomats, or departmental heads. The technique of exchange of notes is frequently resorted to, either because of its speedy procedure or sometimes, to avoid the process of legislative approval.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in; text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size:small;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in; text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size:small;">- Under the fundamental principle of international law of <em>pacta sunt servanda</em> , which is in fact, embodied in section 4 of RA 9184 as it provides that “ any treaty or international or executive agreement affecting the subject matter of this Act to which the Philippines government<span> </span>is a signatory shall be observed”, the DPWH, as the executing agency of the projects financed by Loan Agreement No. PH-P204, rightfully awarded the contract for the implementation of civil works for the CP I project to private respondent<span> </span>China Road and Bridge Corporation.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in; text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size:small;">- The Loan Agreement was subsequently executed and it declared that it was so entered by the parties “ in the light of the contents of the Exchange of Notes between the Government of Japan and the Government of the Philippines, concerning Japanese loans to be extended with a view to promoting the economic stabilization and development efforts of the Philippines. Under the circumstances , the JBIC may well be considered an adjunct of the Japanese government.<br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0pt; text-indent: 0.5in; text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><br /><span style="font-size:small;"></span></p><strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><span style="color: rgb(255, 204, 0);font-size:130%;" ><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);">4. Comm.of Internal Revenue vs S.C.Johnson and Son, Inc.<br /> G.R. No. 127105, June 25, 1999<br /><br /></span></span></span></strong><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"> - Under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties states that a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose.<br /><br /></div><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > - It bears stress that tax refunds are in the nature of tax exemptions. As such they are regarded as in derogation of sovereign authority and to be construed strictissimi juris against the person or entity claiming the exemption.27 The burden of proof is upon him who claims the exemption in his favor and he must be able to justify his claim by the clearest grant of organic or statute law. Private respondent is claiming for a refund of the alleged overpayment of tax on royalties; however, there is nothing on record to support a claim that the tax on royalties under the RP-US Tax Treaty is paid under similar circumstances as the tax on royalties under the RP-West Germany Tax Treaty.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0); font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;font-size:100%;" ><strong>5. Akbayan vs Aquino<br /> GR 170516, July 16, 2008</strong></span><br /><br /><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><div align="justify"> - It must still go through the procedures required by the laws of each country for its entry into force, viz:<br /><em>Article 164. Entry into Force</em><br /> - This Agreement shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date on which the Governments of the Parties exchange diplomatic notes informing each other that their respective legal procedures necessary for entry into force of this Agreement have been completed. It shall remain in force unless terminated as provided for in Article 165.<br /></div><div align="justify">President Arroyo’s endorsement of the JPEPA to the Senate for concurrence is part of the legal procedures which must be met prior to the agreement’s entry into force.The text of the JPEPA having then been made accessible to the public, the petition has become moot and academic to the extent that it seeks the disclosure of the “full text” thereof.The petition is not entirely moot, however, because petitioners seek to obtain, not merely the text of the JPEPA, but also the Philippine and Japanese offers in the course of the negotiations. Needless to say that the President’s power to enter into treaties is unlimited but for the requirement of Senate concurrence, since the President must still ensure that all treaties will substantively conform to all the relevant provisions of the Constitution. While possessing vast legislative powers, may not interfere in the field of treaty negotiations.<br /><br /> - Article VII, Section 21 provides for Senate concurrence, such pertains only to the validity of the treaty under consideration, not to the conduct of negotiations attendant to its conclusion. Moreover, it is not even Congress as a whole that has been given the authority to concur as a means of checking the treaty-making power of the President, but only the Senate.Thus, as in the case of petitioners suing in their capacity as private citizens, petitioners-members of the House of Representatives fail to present a “sufficient showing of need” that the information sought is critical to the performance of the functions of Congress, functions that do not include treaty-negotiation.<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-size:100%;" ><strong style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"><span style="color: rgb(255, 204, 0);"><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);">6. Dept. of Budget Management- PS vs Kolonwell Trading</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"> G.R. No. 175608, June 8, 2007</span><br /><br /></span></strong></span><span style="font-size:small;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">- Under the fundamental international law principle of </span><em style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">pacta sunt servanda</em><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">which is in fact embodied in the afore-qouted Section 4 of RA 9184, the Philippines, as borrower , bound itself to perform in good faith its duties and obligation under Loan NO. 7118-Ph. Applying this postulate in the concrete to this case, the IABAC was legally obliged to comply with, or accord primacy to, the WB Guidelines on the conduct and implementation of the bidding/ procurement process in question.</span><br /><br /></span></span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:small;" ><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">-The Court is unable to lend concurrence to the trial court’s and respondents positions on the interplay of the protest and jurisdictional issues. Section 55 of RA 9184 sets three (3) requirements that must be met by the party desiring to protest the decision of the Bids and Awards Committee. These are:1) the protest must be in writing , in the form of a verified position paper; 2) the protest must be submitted to the head of the procuring entity; and 3) the payment of a non-refundable protest fee. Surely, the absence of provisions on protest fee and reglementary period does not signify the deferment of the implementation of the protest mechanism as a condition </span><em style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">sine qua non</em><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> to resort to judicial relief. As applied to the present case, the respondent had to file a protest and pursue it until its completion before going to court.</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">There was hardly any need to wait for the specific filing period to prescribed by the IRR because the protest, as a matter of necessity, has to be lodged before court action.</span></span></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size:small;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 255);"><span> <br /></span></span></span></p><br /></div> </div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-89806585021166799732008-09-16T17:27:00.000-07:002008-09-18T04:40:10.647-07:00Bar Questions 2008<span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >May a treaty violate international law? If your answer is in the affirmative, explain when such may happen. If your answer is in the negative, explain why.<br /><br />A : </span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">A treaty may generally not violate international law if not in accordance with the principle of jus cogens. </span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">It happens when the subject matter of the treaty of the contracting parties can not be legally complied with because it is forbidden by universally recognized principle of international law. </span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">One of the essential requisites of a valid treaty is that it must contain a lawful subject matter. A violation of the international law makes such subject unlawful. Therefore, any agreement that violates international law makes a treaty null and void. Any treaty that violates jus cogens is rendered void and not binding. </span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"></span><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><br />The President alone without the concurrence of the senate abrogated a treaty. Assume that the other country-party to the treaty is agreeable to the abrogation provided it complies with the Philippine Constitution. If a case involving the validity of the treaty abrogation is brought to the Supreme Court, how should it be resolved?</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >A : </span><span class="postbody" style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">T</span>he Supreme Court should declare the treaty abrogation invalid.<br /><br />While the Constitution is silent on whether a treaty abrogation shall require the concurrence of the Senate to make it valid and effective, the treaty-ratifying power of Senate carries with it the power to concur a treaty abrogated by the President by way of necessary implication.<br /><br />Under the doctrine of incorporation, a treaty duly ratified by the Senate and recognized as such by the contracting State shall form an integral part of the law of the land. The President alone cannot effect the repeal of a law of the land formed by a joint action of the executive and legislative branches, whether the law be a statute or a treaty. To abrogate a treaty, the President’s action must be approved by the Senate.</span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-42849501837286682542008-09-16T17:09:00.000-07:002008-09-16T17:27:04.173-07:00Vienna Convention on Diplomatic and Consular Relations<span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><br /></span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (or VCCR) was completed in 1963 as a multilateral treaty to codify consular practices that developed through customary international law, numerous bilateral treaties, and a number of regional treaties.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The VCCR enumerates basic legal rights and duties of signatory States, including:</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">• the establishment and conduct of consular relations, by mutual consent, and </span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">• the privileges and immunities of consular officers and offices from the laws of the “receiving State” (the country where the foreign consular office has been established). </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">Article 36 of the VCCR requires that foreign nationals who are arrested or detained be given notice "without delay" of their right to have their embassy or consulate notified of that arrest. If the detained foreign national so requests, the police must fax that notice to the embassy or consulate, which can then check up on the person. The notice to the consulate can be as simple as a fax, giving the person's name, the place of arrest, and, if possible, something about the reason for the arrest or detention.</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><br />VIENNA CONVENTION ON CONSULAR RELATIONS AND OPTIONAL PROTOCOLS</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >DONE AT VIENNA, ON 24 APRIL 1963</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The States Parties to the present Convention,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Recalling that consular relations have been established between peoples since ancient times,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Having in mind the Purposes and Principles of the Charter of the United Nation concerning the sovereign equality of States, the maintenance of international peace and security, and the promotion of friendly relations among nations,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Considering that the United Nations Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities adopted the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations which was opened for signature on 18 April 1961,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Believing that an international convention on consular relations, privileges and immunities would also contribute to the development of friendly relations among nations, irrespective of their differing constitutional and social systems,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Realizing that the purpose of such privileges and immunities is not to benefit individuals but to ensure the efficient performance of functions by consular posts on behalf of their respective States,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Affirming that the rules of customary international law continue to govern matters not expressly regulated by the provisions of the present Convention,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Have agreed as follows:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 1</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > DEFINITIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. For the purposes of the present Convention, the following expressions shall have the meanings hereunder assigned to them:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) "consular post" means any consulate-general, consulate, vice-consulate or consular agency;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) "consular district" means the area assigned to a consular post for the exercise of consular functions;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) "head of consular post" means the person charged with the duty of acting in that capacity;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (d) "consular officer" means any person, including the head of a consular post, entrusted in that capacity with the exercise of consular functions;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (e) "consular employee" means any person employed in the administrative or technical service of a consular post;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (f) "member of the service staff" means any person employed in the domestic service of a consular post;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (g) "members of the consular post" means consular officers, consular employees and members of the service staff;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (h) "members of the consular staff" means consular officers, other than the head of a consular post, consular employees and members of the service staff;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (i) "member of the private staff" means a person who is employed exclusively in the private service of a member of the consular post;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (j) "consular premises" means the buildings or parts of buildings and the land ancillary thereto, irrespective of ownership, used exclusively for the purposes of the consular post;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (k) "consular archives" includes all the papers, documents, correspondence, books, films, tapes and registers of the consular post, together with the ciphers and codes, the card-indexes and any article of furniture intended for their protection or safekeeping.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Consular officers are of two categories, namely career consular officers and honorary consular officers. The provisions of Chapter II of the present Convention apply to consular posts headed by career consular officers; the provisions of Chapter III govern consular posts headed by honorary consular officers.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The particular status of members of the consular posts who are nationals or permanent residents of the receiving State is governed by Article 71 of the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CHAPTER I</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CONSULAR RELATIONS IN GENERAL</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > Section I ESTABLISHMENT AND CONDUCT OF CONSULAR RELATIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 2 ESTABLISHMENT OF CONSULAR RELATIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The establishment of consular relations between States takes place by mutual consent.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The consent given to the establishment of diplomatic relations between two States implies, unless otherwise stated, consent to the establishment of consular relations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The severance of diplomatic relations shall not ipso facto involve the severance of consular relations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 3</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXERCISE OF CONSULAR FUNCTIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Consular functions are exercised by consular posts. They are also exercised by diplomatic missions in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 4</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >ESTABLISHMENT OF A CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. A consular post may be established in the territory of the receiving State only with that State's consent.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The seat of the consular post, its classification and the consular district shall be established by the sending State and shall be subject to the approval of the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Subsequent changes in the seat of the consular post, its classification or the consular district may be made by the sending State only with the consent of the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The consent of the receiving State shall also be required if a consulate-general or a consulate desires to open a vice-consulate or a consular agency in a locality other than that in which it is itself established.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >5. The prior express consent of the receiving State shall also be required for the opening of an office forming part of an existing consular post elsewhere than at the seat thereof.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 5</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CONSULAR FUNCTIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Consular functions consist in:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, within the limits permitted by international law;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) furthering the development of commercial, economic, cultural and scientific relations between the sending State and the receiving State and otherwise promoting friendly relations between them in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the commercial, economic, cultural and scientific life of the receiving State, reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State and giving information to persons interested;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (d) issuing passports and travel documents to nationals of the sending State, and visas or appropriate documents to persons wishing to travel to the sending State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (e) helping and assisting nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, of the sending State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (f) acting as notary and civil registrar and in capacities of a similar kind, and performing certain functions of an administrative nature, provided that there is nothing contrary thereto in the laws and regulations of the receiving State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (g) safeguarding the interests of nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, of the sending State in cases of succession mortis causa in the territory of the receiving State, in accordance with the laws and regulations of the receiving State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (h) safeguarding, within the limits imposed by the laws and regulations of the receiving State, the interests of minors and other persons lacking full capacity who are nationals of the sending State, particularly where any guardianship or trusteeship is required with</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > respect to such persons;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (i) subject to the practices and procedures obtaining in the receiving State, representing or arranging appropriate representation for nationals of the sending State before the tribunals and other authorities of the receiving State, for the purpose of obtaining, in accordance with the laws and regulations of the receiving State, provisional measures for the preservation of the rights and interests of these nationals, where, because of absence or any other reason, such nationals are unable at the proper time to assume the defence of their rights and interests;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (j) transmitting judicial and extrajudicial documents or executing letters rogatory or commissions to take evidence for the courts of the sending State in accordance with international agreements in force or, in the absence of such international agreements, in any other manner compatible with the laws and regulations of the receiving State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (k) exercising rights of supervision and inspection provided for in the laws and regulations of the sending State in respect of vessels having the nationality of the sending State, and of aircraft registered in that State, and in respect of their crews;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (l) extending assistance to vessels and aircraft mentioned in sub-paragraph (k) of this Article and to their crews, taking statements regarding the voyage of a vessel, examining and stamping the ship's papers, and,without prejudice to the powers of the authorities of the receiving State, conducting investigations into any incidents which occurred during the voyage, and settling disputes of any kind between the master, the officers and the seamen in so far as this may be authorized by the laws and regulations of the sending State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (m) performing any other functions entrusted to a consular post by the sending State which are not prohibited by the laws and regulations of the receiving State or to which no objection is taken by the receiving State or which are referred to in the international</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > agreements in force between the sending State and the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 6</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXERCISE OF CONSULAR FUNCTIONS OUTSIDE THE CONSULAR DISTRICT</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >A consular officer may, in special circumstances, with the consent of the receiving State, exercise his functions outside his consular district.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 7</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXERCISE OF CONSULAR FUNCTIONS IN A THIRD STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The sending State may, after notifying the States concerned, entrust a consular post established in a particular State with the exercise of consular functions in another State, unless there is express objection by one of the States concerned.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 8</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXERCISE OF CONSULAR FUNCTIONS ON BEHALF OF A THIRD STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Upon appropriate notification to the receiving State, a consular post of the sending State may, unless the receiving State objects, exercise consular functions in the receiving State on behalf of a third State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 9</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CLASSES OF HEADS OF CONSULAR POSTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Heads of consular posts are divided into four classes, namely: </span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) consuls-general;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) consuls; </span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) vice-consuls;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (d) consular agents.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Paragraph 1 of this Article in no way restricts the right of any of the Contracting Parties to fix the designation of consular officers other than the heads of consular posts.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 10</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >APPOINTMENT AND ADMISSION OF HEADS OF CONSULAR POSTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Heads of consular posts are appointed by the sending State and are admitted to the exercise of their functions by the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Subject to the provisions of the present Convention, the formalities for the appointment and for the admission of the head of a consular post are determined by the laws, regulations and usages of the sending State and of the receiving State respectively.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 11</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >THE CONSULAR COMMISSION OR NOTIFICATION OF APPOINTMENT</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The head of a consular post shall be provided by the sending State with a document, in the form of a commission or similar instrument, made out for each appointment, certifying his capacity and showing, as a general rule, his full name, his category and class, the consular district and the seat of the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The sending State shall transmit the commission or similar instrument through the diplomatic or other appropriate channel to the Government of the State in whose territory the head of a consular post is to exercise his functions.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. If the receiving State agrees, the sending State may, instead of a commission or similar instrument, send to the receiving State a notification containing the particulars required by paragraph 1 of this Article.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 12</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >THE EXEQUATUR</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The head of a consular post is admitted to the exercise of his functions by an authorization from the receiving State termed an exequatur, whatever the form of this authorization.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. A State which refuses to grant an exequatur is not obliged to give to the sending State reasons for such refusal.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Subject to the provisions of Articles 13 and 15, the head of a consular post shall not enter upon his duties until he has received an exequatur.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 13</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PROVISIONAL ADMISSION OF HEADS OF CONSULAR POSTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Pending delivery of the exequatur, the head of a consular post may be admitted on a provisional basis to the exercise of his functions. In that case, the provisions of the present Convention shall apply.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 14</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NOTIFICATION TO THE AUTHORITIES OF THE CONSULAR DISTRICT</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >As soon as the head of a consular post is admitted even provisionally to the exercise of his functions, the receiving State shall immediately notify the competent authorities of the consular district. It shall also ensure that the necessary measures are taken to enable the head of a consular post to carry out the duties of his office and to have the benefit of the provisions of the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 15</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >TEMPORARY EXERCISE OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HEAD OF A CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. If the head of a consular post is unable to carry out his functions or the position of head of consular post is vacant, an acting head of post may act provisionally as head of the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The full name of the acting head of post shall be notified either by the diplomatic mission of the sending State or, if that State has no such mission in the receiving State, by the head of the consular post, or, if he is unable to do so, by any competent authority of the sending State, to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or to the authority designated by that Ministry. As a general rule, this notification shall be given in advance. The receiving State may make the admission as acting head of post of a person who is neither a diplomatic agent nor a consular officer of the sending State in the receiving State conditional on its consent.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The competent authorities of the receiving State shall afford assistance and protection to the acting head of post. While he is in charge of the post, the provisions of the present Convention shall apply to him on the same basis as to the head of the consular post concerned. The receiving State shall not, however, be obliged to grant to an acting head of post any facility, privilege or immunity which the head of the consular post enjoys only subject to conditions not fulfilled by the acting head of post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. When, in the circumstances referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article, a member of the diplomatic staff of the diplomatic mission of the sending State in the receiving State is designated by the sending State as an acting head of post, he shall, if the receiving State does not object thereto, continue to enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 16</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PRECEDENCE AS BETWEEN HEADS OF CONSULAR POSTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Heads of consular posts shall rank in each class according to the date of the grant of the exequatur.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. If, however, the head of a consular post before obtaining the exequatur is admitted to the exercise of his functions provisionally, his precedence shall be determined according to the date of the provisional admission; this precedence shall be maintained after the granting of the exequatur.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The order of precedence as between two or more heads of consular posts who obtained the exequatur or provisional admission on the same date shall be determined according to the dates on which their commissions or similar instruments or the notifications referred to in paragraph 3 of Article 11 were presented to the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. Acting heads of posts shall rank after all heads of consular posts and, as between themselves, they shall rank according to the dates on which they assumed their functions as acting heads of posts as indicated in the notifications given under paragraph 2 of Article 15.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >5. Honorary consular officers who are heads of consular posts shall rank in each class after career heads of consular posts, in the order and according to the rules laid down in the foregoing paragraphs.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >6. Heads of consular posts shall have precedence over consular officers not having that status.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 17</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PERFORMANCE OF DIPLOMATIC ACTS BY CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. In a State where the sending State has no diplomatic mission and is not represented by a diplomatic mission of a third State, a consular officer may, with the consent of the receiving State, and without affecting his consular status, be authorized to perform diplomatic acts. The performance of such acts by a consular officer shall not confer upon him any right to claim diplomatic privileges and immunities.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. A consular officer may, after notification addressed to the receiving State, act as representative of the sending State to any inter-governmental organization. When so acting, he shall be entitled to enjoy any privileges and immunities accorded to such a representative by customary international law or by international agreements; however, in respect of the performance by him of any consular function, he shall not be entitled to any greater immunity from jurisdiction than that to which a consular officer is entitled under the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 18</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >APPOINTMENT OF THE SAME PERSON BY TWO OR MORE STATES</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >AS A CONSULAR OFFICER</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Two or more States may, with the consent of the receiving State, appoint the same person as a consular officer in that State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 19</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >APPOINTMENT OF MEMBERS OF CONSULAR STAFF</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Subject to the provisions of Articles 20, 22 and 23, the sending State may freely appoint the members of the consular staff.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The full name, category and class of all consular officers, other than the head of a consular post, shall be notified by the sending State to the receiving State in sufficient time for the receiving State, if it so wishes, to exercise its rights under paragraph 3 of Article 23.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The sending State may, if required by its laws and regulations, request the receiving State to grant an exequatur to a consular officer other than the head of a consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The receiving State may, if required by its laws and regulations, grant an exequatur to a consular officer other than the head of a consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 20</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >SIZE OF THE CONSULAR STAFF</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >In the absence of an express agreement as to the size of the consular staff, the receiving State may require that the size of the staff be kept within limits considered by it to be reasonable and normal, having regard to circumstances and conditions in the consular district and to the needs of the particular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 21</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > PRECEDENCE AS BETWEEN CONSULAR OFFICERS OF A CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The order of precedence as between the consular officers of a consular post and any change thereof shall be notified by the diplomatic mission of the sending State or, if that State has no such mission in the receiving State, by the head of the consular post, to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or to the authority designated by that Ministry.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 22</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NATIONALITY OF CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular officers should, in principle, have the nationality of the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Consular officers may not be appointed from among persons having the nationality of the receiving State except with the express consent of that State which may be withdrawn at any time.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The receiving State may reserve the same right with regard to nationals of a third State who are not also nationals of the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 23</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PERSONS DECLARED "NON GRATA"</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The receiving State may at any time notify the sending State that a consular officer is persona non grata or that any other member of the consular staff is not acceptable. In that event, the sending State shall, as the case may be, either recall the person concerned or terminate his functions with the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. If the sending State refuses or fails within a reasonable time to carry out its obligations under paragraph 1 of this Article, the receiving State may, as the case may be, either withdraw the exequatur from the person concerned or cease to consider him as a member of the consular staff.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. A person appointed as a member of a consular post may be declared unacceptable before arriving in the territory of the receiving State or, if already in the receiving State, before entering on his duties with the consular post. In any such case, the sending State shall withdraw his appointment.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. In the cases mentioned in paragraphs 1 and 3 of this Article, the receiving State is not obliged to give to the sending State reasons for its decision.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 24</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NOTIFICATION TO THE RECEIVING STATE OF APPOINTMENTS,</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or the authority designated by that Ministry shall be notified of:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) the appointment of members of a consular post, their arrival after appointment to the consular post, their final departure or the termination of their functions and any other changes affecting their status that may occur in the course of their service with the</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > consular post;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) the arrival and final departure of a person belonging to the family of a member of a consular post forming part of his household and, where appropriate, the fact that a person becomes or ceases to be such a member of the family;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) the arrival and final departure of members of the private staff and, where appropriate, the termination of their service as such;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (d) the engagement and discharge of persons resident in the receiving State as members of a consular post or as members of the private staff entitled to privileges and immunities.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. When possible, prior notification of arrival and final departure shall also be given.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > Section II END OF CONSULAR FUNCTIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 25</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >TERMINATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF A MEMBER OF A CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The functions of a member of a consular post shall come to an end interalia:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) on notification by the sending State to the receiving State that his functions have come to an end;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) on withdrawal of the exequatur;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) on notification by the receiving State to the sending State that the receiving State has ceased to consider him as a member of the consular staff.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 26</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >DEPARTURE FROM THE TERRITORY OF THE RECEIVING STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall, even in case of armed conflict, grant to members of the consular post and members of the private staff, other than nationals of the receiving State, and to members of their families forming part of their households irrespective of nationality, the necessary time and facilities to enable them to prepare their departure and to leave at the earliest possible moment after the termination of the functions of the members concerned. In particular, it shall, in case of need, place at their disposal the necessary means of transport for themselves and their property other than property acquired in the receiving State the export of which is prohibited at the time of departure.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 27</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PROTECTION OF CONSULAR PREMISES AND ARCHIVES AND OF THE INTERESTS OF THE SENDING STATE IN EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. In the event of the severance of consular relations between two States:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) the receiving State shall, even in case of armed conflict, respect and protect the consular premises, together with the property of the consular post and the consular archives;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) the sending State may entrust the custody of the consular premises, together with the property contained therein and the consular archives, to a third State acceptable to the receiving State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) the sending State may entrust the protection of its interests and those of its nationals to a third State acceptable to the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. In the event of the temporary or permanent closure of a consular post, the provisions of sub-paragraph (a) of paragraph 1 of this Article shall apply. In addition,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) if the sending State, although not represented in the receiving State by a diplomatic mission, has another consular post in the territory of that State, that consular post may be entrusted with the custody of the premises of the consular post which has been closed, together with the property contained therein and the consular archives, and, with the consent of the receiving State, with the exercise of consular functions in the district of that consular post; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) if the sending State has no diplomatic mission and no other consular post in the receiving State, the provisions of sub-paragraphs (b) and (c) of paragraph 1 of this Article shall apply.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CHAPTER II</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >FACILITIES, PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES RELATING TO CONSULAR POSTS, CAREER CONSULAR OFFICERS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF A CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Section I FACILITIES, PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES RELATING TO A</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 28</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >FACILITIES FOR THE WORK OF THE CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall accord full facilities for the performance of the functions of the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 29</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >USE OF NATIONAL FLAG AND COAT-OF-ARMS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The sending State shall have the right to the use of its national flag and coat-of-arms in the receiving State in accordance with the provisions of this Article.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The national flag of the sending State may be flown and its coat-of-arms displayed on the building occupied by the consular post and at the entrance door thereof, on the residence of the head of the consular post and on his means of transport when used on official business.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. In the exercise of the right accorded by this Article regard shall be had to the laws, regulations and usages of the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 30</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >ACCOMMODATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The receiving State shall either facilitate the acquisition on its territory, in accordance with its laws and regulations, by the sending State of premises necessary for its consular post or assist the latter in obtaining accommodation in some other way.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. It shall also, where necessary, assist the consular post in obtaining suitable accommodation for its members.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 31</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >INVIOLABILITY OF THE CONSULAR PREMISES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular premises shall be inviolable to the extent provided in this Article.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The authorities of the receiving State shall not enter that part of the consular premises which is used exclusively for the purpose of the work of the consular post except with the consent of the head of the consular post or of his designee or of the head of the diplomatic mission of the sending State. The consent of the head of the consular post may, however, be assumed in case of fire or other disaster requiring prompt protective action.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 2 of this Article, the receiving State is under a special duty to take all appropriate steps to protect the consular premises against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any disturbance of the peace of the consular post or impairment of its dignity.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The consular premises, their furnishings, the property of the consular post and its means of transport shall be immune from any form of requisition for purposes of national defence or public utility. If expropriation is necessary for such purposes, all possible steps shall be taken to avoid impeding the performance of consular functions, and prompt, adequate and effective compensation shall be paid to the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 32</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM TAXATION OF CONSULAR PREMISES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular premises and the residence of the career head of consular post of which the sending State or any person acting on its behalf is the owner or lessee shall be exempt from all national, regional or municipal dues and taxes whatsoever, other than such as represent payment for specific services rendered.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The exemption from taxation referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall not apply to such dues and taxes if, under the law of the receiving State, they are payable by the person who contracted with the sending State or with the person acting on its behalf.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 33</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >INVIOLABILITY OF THE CONSULAR ARCHIVES AND DOCUMENTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The consular archives and documents shall be inviolable at all times and wherever they may be.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 34</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Subject to its laws and regulations concerning zones entry into which is prohibited or regulated for reasons of national security, the receiving State shall ensure freedom of movement and travel in its territory to all members of the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 35</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >FREEDOM OF COMMUNICATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The receiving State shall permit and protect freedom of communication on the part of the consular post for all official purposes. In communicating with the Government, the diplomatic missions and other consular posts, wherever situated, of the sending State, the consular post may employ all appropriate means, including diplomatic or consular couriers, diplomatic or consular bags and messages in code or cipher. However, the consular post may install and use a wireless transmitter only with the consent of the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The official correspondence of the consular post shall be inviolable. Official correspondence means all correspondence relating to the consular post and its functions.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The consular bag shall be neither opened nor detained. Nevertheless, if the competent authorities of the receiving State have serious reason to believe that the bag contains something other than the correspondence, documents or articles referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article, they may request that the bag be opened in their presence by an authorized representative of the sending State. If this request is refused by the authorities of the sending State, the bag shall be returned to its place of origin.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The packages constituting the consular bag shall bear visible external marks of their character and may contain only official correspondence and documents or articles intended exclusively for official use.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >5. The consular courier shall be provided with an official document indicat ing his status and the number of packages constituting the consular bag. Except with the consent of the receiving State he shall be neither a national of the receiving State, nor, unless he is a national of the sending State, a permanent resident of the receiving State. In the performance of his functions he shall be protected by the receiving State. He shall enjoy personal inviolability and shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >6. The sending State, its diplomatic missions and its consular posts may designate consular couriers ad hoc. In such cases the provisions of paragraph 5 of this Article shall also apply except that the immunities therein mentioned shall cease to apply when such a courier has delivered to the consignee the consular bag in his charge.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >7. A consular bag may be entrusted to the captain of a ship or of a commercial aircraft scheduled to land at an authorized port of entry. He shall be provided with an official document indicating the number of packages constituting the bag, but he shall not be considered to be a consular courier. By arrangement with the appropriate local authorities, the consular post may send one of its members to take possession of the bag directly and freely from the captain of the ship or of the aircraft.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 36</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >COMMUNICATION AND CONTACT WITH NATIONALS OF THE SENDING STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. With a view to facilitating the exercise of consular functions relating to nationals of the sending State:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) consular officers shall be free to communicate with nationals of the sending State and to have access to them. Nationals of the sending State shall have the same freedom with respect to communication with and access to consular officers of the sending State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) if he so requests, the competent authorities of the receiving State shall, without delay, inform the consular post of the sending State if, within its consular district, a national of that State is arrested or committed to prison or to custody pending trial or is detained in any other manner. Any communication addressed to the consular post by the person arrested, in prison, custody or detention shall also be forwarded by the said authorities without delay. The said authorities shall inform the person concerned without delay of his rights under this sub-paragraph;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) consular officers shall have the right to visit a national of the sending State who is in prison, custody or detention, to converse and correspond with him and to arrange for his legal representation. Theyshall also have the right to visit any national of the sending State who is in prison, custody or detention in their district in pursuance of a judgment. Nevertheless, consular officers shall refrain from taking action on behalf of a national who is in prison, custody or detention if he expressly opposes such action.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The rights referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall be exercised in conformity with the laws and regulations of the receiving State, subject to the proviso, however, that the said laws and regulations must enable full effect to be given to the purposes for which the rights accorded under this Article are intended.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 37</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >INFORMATION IN CASES OF DEATHS, GUARDIANSHIP OR TRUSTEESHIP,</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >WRECKS AND AIR ACCIDENTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >If the relevant information is available to the competent authorities of the receiving State, such authorities shall have the duty:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) in the case of the death of a national of the sending State, to inform without delay the consular post in whose district the death occurred;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) to inform the competent consular post without delay of any case where the appointment of a guardian or trustee appears to be in the interests of a minor or other person lacking full capacity who is a national of the sending State. The giving of this information shall, however, be without prejudice to the operation of the laws and regulations of the receiving State concerning such appointments;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) if a vessel, having the nationality of the sending State, is wrecked or runs aground in the territorial sea or internal waters of the receiving State, or if an aircraft registered in the sending State suffers an accident on the territory of the receiving State, to inform without delay the consular post nearest to the scene of the occurrence.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 38</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >COMMUNICATION WITH THE AUTHORITIES OF THE RECEIVING STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >In the exercise of their functions, consular officers may address:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) the competent local authorities of their consular district;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) the competent central authorities of the receiving State if and to the extent that this is allowed by the laws, regulations and usages of the receiving State or by the relevant international agreements.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 39</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CONSULAR FEES AND CHARGES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The consular post may levy in the territory of the receiving State the fees and charges provided by the laws and regulations of the sending State for consular acts.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The sums collected in the form of the fees and charges referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article, and the receipts for such fees and charges, shall be exempt from all dues and taxes in the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Section II</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >FACILITIES, PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES RELATING TO CAREER CONSULAR OFFICERS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF A CONSULAR POST</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 40</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PROTECTION OF CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall treat consular officers with due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to prevent any attack on their person, freedom or dignity.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 41</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PERSONAL INVIOLABILITY OF CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular officers shall not be liable to arrest or detention pending trial, except in the case of a grave crime and pursuant to a decision by the competent judicial authority.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Except in the case specified in paragraph 1 of this Article, consular officers shall not be committed to prison or liable to any other form of restriction on their personal freedom save in execution of a judicial decision of final effect.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. If criminal proceedings are instituted against a consular officer, he must appear before the competent authorities. Nevertheless, the proceedings shall be conducted with the respect due to him by reason of his official position and, except in the case specified in paragraph 1 of this Article, in a manner which will hamper the exercise of consular functions as little as possible. When, in the circumstances mentioned in paragraph 1 of this Article, it has become necessary to detain a consular officer, the proceedings against him shall be instituted with the minimum of delay.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 42</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NOTIFICATION OF ARREST, DETENTION OR PROSECUTION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >In the event of the arrest or detention, pending trial, of a member of the consular staff, or of criminal proceedings being instituted against him, the receiving State shall promptly notify the head of the consular post. Should the latter be himself the object of any such measure, the receiving State shall notify the sending State through the diplomatic channel.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 43</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >IMMUNITY FROM JURISDICTION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular officers and consular employees shall not be amenable to the jurisdiction of the judicial or administrative authorities of the receiving State in respect of acts performed in the exercise of consular functions.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall not, however, apply</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >in respect of a civil action either:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) arising out of a contract concluded by a consular officer or a consular employee in which he did not contract expressly or impliedly as an agent of the sending State; or</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) by a third party for damage arising from an accident in the receiving State caused by a vehicle, vessel or aircraft.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 44</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >LIABILITY TO GIVE EVIDENCE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Members of a consular post may be called upon to attend as witnesses in the course of judicial or administrative proceedings. A consular employee or a member of the service staff shall not, except in the cases mentioned in paragraph 3 of this Article, decline to give evidence. If a consular officer should decline to do so, no coercive measure or penalty may be applied to him.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The authority requiring the evidence of a consular officer shall avoid interference with the performance of his functions. It may, when possible, take such evidence at his residence or at the consular post or accept a statement from him in writing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Members of a consular post are under no obligation to give evidence concerning matters connected with the exercise of their functions or to produce official correspondence and documents relating thereto. They are also entitled to decline to give evidence as expert witnesses with regard to the law of the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 45</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >WAIVER OF PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The sending State may waive, with regard to a member of the consular post, any of the privileges and immunities provided for in Articles 41, 43 and 44.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The waiver shall in all cases be express, except as provided in paragraph 3 of this Article, and shall be communicated to the receiving State in writing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The initiation of proceedings by a consular officer or a consular employee in a matter where he might enjoy immunity from jurisdiction under Article 43 shall preclude him from invoking immunity from jurisdiction in respect of any counter-claim directly connected with the principal claim.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The waiver of immunity from jurisdiction for the purposes of civil or administrative proceedings shall not be deemed to imply the waiver of immunity from the measures of execution resulting from the judicial decision n; in respect of such measures, a separate waiver shall be necessary.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 46</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > EXEMPTION FROM REGISTRATION OF ALIENS AND RESIDENCE PERMITS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular officers and consular employees and members of their families forming part of their households shall be exempt from all obligations under the laws and regulations of the receiving State in regard to the registration of aliens and residence permits.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall not, however, apply to any consular employee who is not a permanent employee of the sending State or who carries on any private gainful occupation in the receiving State or to any member of the family of any such employee.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 47</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM WORK PERMITS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Members of the consular post shall, with respect to services rendered for the sending State, be exempt from any obligations in regard to work permits imposed by the laws and regulations of the receiving State concerning the employment of foreign labour.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Members of the private staff of consular officers and of consular employees shall, if they do not carry on any other gainful occupation in the receiving State, be exempt from the obligations referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 48</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >SOCIAL SECURITY EXEMPTION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3 of this Article, members of the consular post with respect to services rendered by them for the sending State, and members of their families forming part of their households, shall be exempt from social security provisions which may be in force in the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The exemption provided for in paragraph 1 of this Article shall apply also to members of the private staff who are in the sole employ of members of the consular post, on condition: </span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) that they are not nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State; and</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) that they are covered by the social security provisions which are in force in the sending State or a third State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Members of the consular post who employ persons to whom the exemption provided for in paragraph 2 of this Article does not apply shall observe the obligations which the social security provisions of the receiving State impose upon employers.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The exemption provided for in paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article shall not preclude voluntary participation in the social security system of the receiving State, provided that such participation is permitted by that State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 49</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM TAXATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular officers and consular employees and members of their families forming part of their households shall be exempt from all dues and taxes,personal or real, national, regional or municipal, except:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) indirect taxes of a kind which are normally incorporated in the price of goods or services;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) dues or taxes on private immovable property situated in the territory of the receiving State, subject to the provisions of Article 32;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) estate, succession or inheritance duties, and duties on transfers, levied by the receiving State, subject to the provisions of paragraph (b) of Article 51;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (d) dues and taxes on private income, including capital gains, having its source in the receiving State and capital taxes relating to investments made in commercial or financial undertakings in the receiving State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (e) charges levied for specific services rendered;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (f) registration, court or record fees, mortgage dues and stamp duties, subject to the provisions of Article 32.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Members of the service staff shall be exempt from dues and taxes on the wages which they receive for their services.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Members of the consular post who employ persons whose wages or salaries are not exempt from income tax in the receiving State shall observe the obligations which the laws and regulations of that State impose upon employers concerning the levying of income tax.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 50</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM CUSTOMS DUTIES AND INSPECTION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The receiving State shall, in accordance with such laws and regulations as it may adopt, permit entry of and grant exemption from all customs duties, taxes, and related charges other than charges for storage, cartage and similar services, on:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) articles for the official use of the consular post;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) articles for the personal use of a consular officer or members of his family forming part of his household, including articles intended forhis establishment. The articles intended for consumption shall not exceed the quantities necessary for direct utilization by the persons concerned.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Consular employees shall enjoy the privileges and exemptions specified in paragraph 1 of this Article in respect of articles imported at the time of first installation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Personal baggage accompanying consular officers and members of their families forming part of their households shall be exempt from inspection. It may be inspected only if there is serious reason to believe that it contains articles other than those referred to in sub-paragraph (b) of paragraph 1 of this Article, or articles the import or export of which is prohibited by the laws and regulations of the receiving State or which are subject to its quarantine laws and regulations. Such inspection shall be carried out in the presence of the consular officer or member of his family concerned.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 51</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >ESTATE OF A MEMBER OF THE CONSULAR POST</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >OR OF A MEMBER OF HIS FAMILY</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >In the event of the death of a member of the consular post or of a member of his family forming part of his household, the receiving State:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) shall permit the export of the movable property of the deceased, with the exception of any such property acquired in the receiving State the export of which was prohibited at the time of his death;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) shall not levy national, regional or municipal estate, succession or inheritance duties, and duties on transfers, on movable property the presence of which in the receiving State was due solely to the presence in that State of the deceased as a member of the consular post or as a member of the family of a member of the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 52</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM PERSONAL SERVICES AND CONTRIBUTIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall exempt members of the consular post and members of their families forming part of their households from all personal services, from all public service of any kind whatsoever, and from military obligations such as those connected with requisitioning, military contributions and billeting.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 53</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >BEGINNING AND END OF CONSULAR PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Every member of the consular post shall enjoy the privileges and immunities provided in the present Convention from the moment he enters the territory of the receiving State on proceeding to take up his post or, if already in its territory, from the moment when he enters on his duties with the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Members of the family of a member of the consular post forming part of his household and members of his private staff shall receive the privileges and immunities provided in the present Convention from the date from which he enjoys privileges and immunities in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article or from the date of their entry into the territory of the receiving State or from the date of their becoming a member of such family or private staff, whichever is the latest.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. When the functions of a member of the consular post have come to an end, his privileges and immunities and those of a member of his family forming part of his household or a member of his private staff shall normally cease at the moment when the person concerned leaves the receiving State or on the expiry of a reasonable period in which to do so, whichever is the sooner, but shall subsist until that time, even in case of armed conflict. In the case of the persons referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article, their privileges and immunities shall come to an end when they cease to belong to the household or to be in the service of a member of the consular post provided, however, that if such persons intend leaving the receiving State within a reasonable period thereafter, their privileges and immunities shall subsist until the time of their departure.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. However, with respect to acts performed by a consular officer or a consular employee in the exercise of his functions, immunity from jurisdiction shall continue to subsist without limitation of time. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >5. In the event of the death of a member of the consular post, the members of his family forming part of his household shall continue to enjoy the privileges and immunities accorded to them until they leave the receiving State or until the expiry of a reasonable period enabling them to do so, whichever is the sooner.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 54</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >OBLIGATIONS OF THIRD STATES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. If a consular officer passes through or is in the territory of a third State, which has granted him a visa if a visa was necessary, while proceeding to take up or return to his post or when returning to the sending State, the third State shall accord to him all immunities provided for by the other Articles of the present Convention as may be required to ensure his transit or return. The same shall apply in the case of any member of his family forming part of his household enjoying such privileges and immunities who are accompanying the consular officer or traveling separately to join him or to return to the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. In circumstances similar to those specified in paragraph 1 of this Article, third States shall not hinder the transit through their territory of other members of the consular post or of members of their families forming part of their households.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Third States shall accord to official correspondence and to other official communications in transit, including messages in code or cipher, the same freedom and protection as the receiving State is bound to accord under the present Convention. They shall accord to consular couriers who have been granted a visa, if a visa was necessary, and to consular bags in transit, the same inviolability and protection as the receiving State is bound to accord under the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The obligations of third States under paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 of this Article shall also apply to the persons mentioned respectively in those paragraphs, and to official communications and to consular bags, whose presence in the territory of the third State is due to force majeure.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 55</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >RESPECT FOR THE LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE RECEIVING STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Without prejudice to their privileges and immunities, it is the duty of all persons enjoying such privileges and immunities to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State. They also have a duty not to interfere in the internal affairs of that State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The consular premises shall not be used in any manner incompatible with the exercise of consular functions.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. The provisions of paragraph 2 of this Article shall not exclude the possibility of offices of other institutions or agencies being installed in part of the building in which the consular premises are situated, provided that the premises assigned to them are separate from those used by the consular post. In that event, the said offices shall not, for the purposes of the present Convention, be considered to form part of the consular premises.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 56</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >INSURANCE AGAINST THIRD PARTY RISKS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Members of the consular post shall comply with any requirement imposed by the laws and regulations of the receiving State in respect of insurance against third party risks arising from the use of any vehicle, vessel or aircraft.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 57</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >SPECIAL PROVISIONS CONCERNING PRIVATE GAINFUL OCCUPATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Career consular officers shall not carry on for personal profit any professional or commercial activity in the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Privileges and immunities provided in this Chapter shall not be accorded:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) to consular employees or to members of the service staff who carry on any private gainful occupation in the receiving State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) to members of the family of a person referred to in sub-paragraph (a)of this paragraph or to members of his private staff;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) to members of the family of a member of a consular post who themselves carry on any private gainful occupation in the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CHAPTER III</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >REGIME RELATING TO HONORARY CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >AND CONSULAR POSTS HEADED BY SUCH OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 58</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >GENERAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO FACILITIES,</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Articles 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39, paragraph 3 of Article 54 and paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 55 shall apply to consular posts headed by an honorary consular officer. In addition, the facilities, privileges and immunities of such consular posts shall be governed by Articles 59, 60, 61 and 62.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Articles 42 and 43, paragraph 3 of Article 44, Articles 45 and 53 and paragraph 1 of Article 55 shall apply to honorary consular officers. In addition, the facilities, privileges and immunities of such consular officers shall be governed by Articles 63, 64, 65, 66 and 67.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. Privileges and immunities provided in the present Convention shall not be accorded to members of the family of an honorary consular officer or of a consular employee employed at a consular post headed by an honorary consular officer.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The exchange of consular bags between two consular posts headed by honorary consular officers in different States shall not be allowed without the consent of the two receiving States concerned.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 59</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PROTECTION OF THE CONSULAR PREMISES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall take such steps as may be necessary to protect the consular premises of a consular post headed by an honorary consular officer against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any disturbance of the peace of the consular post or impairment of its dignity.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 60</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM TAXATION OF CONSULAR PREMISES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Consular premises of a consular post headed by an honorary consular officer of which the sending State is the owner or lessee shall be exempt from all national, regional or municipal dues and taxes whatsoever, other than such as represent payment for specific services rendered.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The exemption from taxation referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall not apply to such dues and taxes if, under the laws and regulations of the receiving State, they are payable by the person who contracted with the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 61</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >INVIOLABILITY OF CONSULAR ARCHIVES AND DOCUMENTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The consular archives and documents of a consular post headed by an honorary consular officer shall be inviolable at all times and wherever they may be, provided that they are kept separate from other papers and documents and, in particular, from the private correspondence of the head of a consular post and of any person working with him, and from the materials, books or documents relating to their profession or trade.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 62</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM CUSTOMS DUTIES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall, in accordance with such laws and regulations as it may adopt, permit entry of, and grant exemption from all customs duties, taxes, and related charges other than charges for storage, cartage and similar services on the following articles, provided that they are for the official use of a consular post headed by an honorary consular officer: coats-of-arms, flags, signboards, seals and stamps, books, official printed matter, office furniture, office equipment and similar articles supplied by or at the instance of the sending State to the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 63</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >If criminal proceedings are instituted against an honorary consular officer , he must appear before the competent authorities. Nevertheless, the proceedings shall be conducted with the respect due to him by reason of his official position and, except when he is under arrest or detention, in a manner which will hamper the exercise of consular functions as little as possible. When it has become necessary to detain an honorary consular officer, the proceedings against him shall be instituted with the minimum of delay.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 64</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >PROTECTION OF HONORARY CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State is under a duty to accord to an honorary consular officer such protection as may be required by reason of his official position.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 65</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM REGISTRATION OF ALIENS AND RESIDENCE PERMITS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Honorary consular officers, with the exception of those who carry on for personal profit any professional or commercial activity in the receiving State, shall be exempt from all obligations under the laws and regulations of the receiving State in regard to the registration of aliens and residence permits.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 66</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM TAXATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >An honorary consular officer shall be exempt from all dues and taxes on the remuneration and emoluments which he receives from the sending State in respect of the exercise of consular functions.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 67</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXEMPTION FROM PERSONAL SERVICES AND CONTRIBUTIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The receiving State shall exempt honorary consular officers from all personal services and from all public services of any kind whatsoever and from military obligations such as those connected with requisitioning, military contributions and billeting.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 68</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >OPTIONAL CHARACTER OF THE INSTITUTION</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >OF HONORARY CONSULAR OFFICERS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Each State is free to decide whether it will appoint or receive honorary consular officers.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CHAPTER IV</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >GENERAL PROVISIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 69</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CONSULAR AGENTS WHO ARE NOT HEADS OF CONSULAR POSTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Each State is free to decide whether it will establish or admit consular agencies conducted by consular agents not designated as heads of consular post by the sending State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The conditions under which the consular agencies referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article may carry on their activities and the privileges and immunities which may be enjoyed by the consular agents in charge of them shall be determined by agreement between the sending State and the receiving State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 70</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >EXERCISE OF CONSULAR FUNCTIONS BY DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The provisions of the present Convention apply also, so far as the context permits, to the exercise of consular functions by a diplomatic mission.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The names of members of a diplomatic mission assigned to the consular section or otherwise charged with the exercise of the consular functions of the mission shall be notified to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or to the authority designated by that Ministry.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >3. In the exercise of consular functions a diplomatic mission may address:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) the local authorities of the consular district;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) the central authorities of the receiving State if this is allowed by the laws, regulations and usages of the receiving State or by relevant international agreements.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >4. The privileges and immunities of the members of a diplomatic mission referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article shall continue to be governed by the rules of international law concerning diplomatic relations.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 71</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NATIONALS OR PERMANENT RESIDENTS OF THE RECEIVING STATE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Except in so far as additional facilities, privileges and immunities may be granted by the receiving State, consular officers who are nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State shall enjoy only immunity from jurisdiction and personal inviolability in respect of official acts performed in the exercise of their functions, and the privilege provided in paragraph 3 of Article 44. So far as these consular officers are concerned, the receiving State shall likewise be bound by the obligation laid down in Article 42. If criminal proceedings are instituted against such a consular officer, the proceedings shall, except when he is under arrest or detention, be conducted in a manner which will hamper the exercise of consular functions as little as possible.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Other members of the consular post who are nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State and members of their families, as well as members of the families of consular officers referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article, shall enjoy facilities, privileges and immunities only in so far as these are granted to them by the receiving State. Those members of the families of members of the consular post and those members of the private staff who are themselves nationals of or permanently resident in the receiving State shall likewise enjoy facilities, privileges and immunities only in so far as these are granted to them by the receiving State. The receiving State shall, however, exercise its jurisdiction over those persons in such a way as not to hinder unduly the performance of the functions of the consular post.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 72</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NON-DISCRIMINATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. In the application of the provisions of the present Convention the receiving State shall not discriminate as between States.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. However, discrimination shall not be regarded as taking place:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) where the receiving State applies any of the provisions of the present Convention restrictively because of a restrictive application of that provision to its consular posts in the sending State;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) where by custom or agreement States extend to each other more favourable treatment than is required by the provisions of the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 73</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PRESENT CONVENTION</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The provisions of the present Convention shall not affect other international agreements in force as between States parties to them.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. Nothing in the present Convention shall preclude States from concluding international agreements confirming or supplementing or extending or amplifying the provisions thereof.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >CHAPTER V</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >FINAL PROVISIONS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 74</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >SIGNATURE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Convention shall be open for signature by all States Members of the United Nations or of any of the specialized agencies or Parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, and by any other State invited by the General Assembly of the United Nations to become a Party to the Convention, as follows until 31 October 1963 at the Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Austria and subsequently, until 31 March 1964, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 75</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >RATIFICATION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Convention is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 76</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >ACCESSION</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Convention shall remain open for accession by any State belonging to any of the four categories mentioned in Article 74. The instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 77</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >ENTRY INTO FORCE</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the twenty-second instrument of ratification or accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the Convention after the deposit of the twenty-second instrument of ratification or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification or accession.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 78</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >NOTIFICATIONS BY THE SECRETARY-GENERAL</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all States belonging to any of the four categories mentioned in Article 74:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) of signatures to the present Convention and of the deposit of instruments of ratification or accession, in accordance with Articles 74, 75 and 76;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) of the date on which the present Convention will enter into force.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article 79</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >AUTHENTIC TEXTS</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The original of the present Convention, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all States belonging to any of the four categories mentioned in Article 74.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the present Convention.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >DONE at Vienna, this twenty-fourth day of April, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-three.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >OPTIONAL PROTOCOL TO THE VIENNA CONVENTION ON CONSULAR RELATIONS CONCERNING ACQUISITION OF NATIONALITY. DONE AT VIENNA, ON 24 APRIL 1963</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The States Parties to the present Protocol and to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, hereinafter referred to as "the Convention", adopted by the United Nations Conference held at Vienna from 4 March to 22 April 1963,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Expressing their wish to establish rules between them concerning acquisition of nationality by members of the consular post and by members of their families forming part of their households,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Have agreed as follows:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article I</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >For the purposes of the present Protocol, the expression "members of the consular post" shall have the meaning assigned to it in sub-paragraph (g) of paragraph 1 of Article 1 of the Convention, namely, "consular officers, consular employees and members of the service staff".</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article II</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Members of the consular post not being nationals of the receiving State, and members of their families forming part of their households, shall not, solely by the operation of the law of the receiving State, acquire the nationality of that State.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article III</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Protocol shall be open for signature by all States which may become Parties to the Convention, as follows: until 31 October 1963 at the Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Austria and, subsequently, until 31 March 1964, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article IV</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Protocol is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article V</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Protocol shall remain open for accession by all States which may become Parties to the Convention. The instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article VI</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The present Protocol shall enter into force on the same day as the Convention or on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the second instrument of ratification of or accession to the Protocol with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, whichever date is the later.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the present Protocol after its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article, the Protocol shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification or accession.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article VII</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all States which may become Parties to the Convention:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) of signatures to the present Protocol and of the deposit of instruments of ratification or accession, in accordance with Articles III, IV and V;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) of the date on which the present Protocol will enter into force, in accordance with Article VI.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article VIII</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The original of the present Protocol, of which the Chinese, English,French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all States referred to in Article III.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the present Protocol.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >DONE at Vienna, this twenty-fourth day of April, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-three.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >OPTIONAL PROTOCOL TO THE VIENNA CONVENTION ON CONSULAR RELATIONS CONCERNING THE COMPULSORY SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES. DONE AT VIENNA, ON 24 APRIL 1963</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The States Parties to the present Protocol and to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, hereinafter referred to as "the Convention", adopted by the United Nations Conference held at Vienna from 4 March to 22 April 1963,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Expressing their wish to resort in all matters concerning them in respect of any dispute arising out of the interpretation or application of the Convention to the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, unless some other form of settlement has been agreed upon by the parties within a reasonable period,</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Have agreed as follows:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article I</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Disputes arising out of the interpretation or application of the Convention shall lie within the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice and may accordingly be brought before the Court by an application made by any party to the dispute being a Party to the present Protocol.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article II</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The parties may agree, within a period of two months after one party has notified its opinion to the other that a dispute exists, to resort not to the International Court of Justice but to an arbitral tribunal. After the expiry of the said period, either party may bring the dispute before the Court by an application.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article III</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. Within the same period of two months, the parties may agree to adopt a conciliation procedure before resorting to the International Court of Justice.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. The conciliation commission shall make its recommendations within five months after its appointment. If its recommendations are not accepted by the parties to the dispute within two months after they have been delivered, either party may bring the dispute before the Court by an application.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article IV</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >States Parties to the Convention, to the Optional Protocol concerning Acquisition of Nationality, and to the present Protocol may at any time declare that they will extend the provisions of the present Protocol to disputes arising out of the interpretation or application of the Optional Protocol concerning Acquisition of Nationality. Such declarations shall be notified to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article V</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Protocol shall be open for signature by all States which may become Parties to the Convention as follows: until 31 October 1963 at the Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Austria and, subsequently, until 31 March 1964, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article VI</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Protocol is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article VII</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The present Protocol shall remain open for accession by all States which may become Parties to the Convention. The instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article VIII</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. The present Protocol shall enter into force on the same day as the Convention or on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the second instrument of ratification or accession to the Protocol with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, whichever date is the later.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the present Protocol after its entry into force in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article, the Protocol shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification or accession.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article IX</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all States which may become Parties to the Convention:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (a) of signatures to the present Protocol and of the deposit of instruments of ratification or accession, in accordance with Articles V, VI and VII;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b) of declarations made in accordance with Article IV of the present Protocol;</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (c) of the date on which the present Protocol will enter into force, in accordance with Article VIII.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Article X</span><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >The original of the present Protocol, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all States referred to in Article V.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the present Protocol.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >DONE at Vienna, this twenty-fourth day of April, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-three. </span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-54592818249385375412008-09-16T17:05:00.000-07:002008-09-16T17:08:20.221-07:00Republic Act. 75<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">REPUBLIC ACT NO. 75</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">AN ACT TO PENALIZE ACTS WHICH WOULD IMPAIR THE PROPER OBSERVANCE BY THE REPUBLIC AND INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES OF THE IMMUNITIES, RIGHT, AND PRIVILEGES OF DULY ACCREDITED FOREIGN DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR AGENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Section 1. Any person who shall falsely assume and take upon himself to act as a diplomatic, consular, or any other official of a foreign government duly accredited as such to the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with intent to defraud such foreign government or the Government of the Philippines, or any person, or in such pretended character shall demand or obtain, or attempt to obtain from person or from said foreign government or the Government of the Philippines, or from any officer thereof, any money, paper, document, or other thing, of value, shall be fined not more than five thousand pesos, or shall be imprisoned for not more than five years, or both, in addition to the penalties that may be imposed under the Revised Penal Code.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 2. Any person, other than a diplomatic or consular officer or attaché, who shall act in the Republic of the Philippines as an agent of a foreign government without prior notification to, and registration with, the Secretary of Foreign Affairs shall be fined not more than five thousand pesos, or imprisoned not more than five years, or both, aside from other penalties that may be imposed by law. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 3. Any person, who with intent to deceive or mislead, within the jurisdiction of the Republic, wear any naval, military, police, or other official uniform, decoration, or regalia of any foreign State, nation or government with which the Republic of the Philippines is at peace, or any uniform, decoration or regalia so nearly resembling the same as to be calculated to deceive, unless such wearing thereof be authorized by such State, nation, or government, shall upon conviction, be punished by a fine not exceeding two hundred pesos or imprisonment not exceeding six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 4. Any writ or process sued out or prosecuted by any person in any court of the Republic of the Philippines, or by any judge or justice, whereby the person of any ambassador or public minister of any foreign State, authorized and received as such by the President, or any domestic or domestic servant of any such ambassador or minister is arrested or imprisoned, or his goods or chattels are distrained, seized, or attached, shall be deemed void, and every person by whom the same is obtained or prosecuted, whether as party or as attorney, and every officer concerned in executing it, shall upon conviction, be punished by imprisonment for not more than three years and a fine of not exceeding two hundred pesos in the discretion of the court.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 5. The provisions of Sec. four hereof shall not apply to any case where the person against whom the process is issued is a citizen or inhabitant of the Republic of the Philippines, in the service of an ambassador or a public minister, and the process is founded upon a debt contracted before he entered upon such service; nor shall the said Sec. apply to any case where the person against whom the process is issued is a domestic servant of an ambassador or a public minister, unless the name of the servant has, before the issuing thereof, been registered in the Department of Foreign Affairs, and transmitted by the Secretary of Foreign Affairs to the Chief of Police of the City of Manila, who shall upon receipt thereof post the same in some public place in his office. All persons shall have resort to the list of names so posted in the office of the Chief of Police, and take copies without fee.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 6. Any person who assaults, strikes, wounds, imprisons or in any other manner offers violence to the person of an ambassador or a public minister, in violation of the law of nations, shall be imprisoned not more than three years, and fined not exceeding two hundred pesos, in the discretion of the court, in addition to the penalties that may be imposed under the Revised Penal Code.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 7. The provisions of this Act shall be applicable only in case where the country of the diplomatic or consular representative adversely affected has provided for similar protection to duly accredited diplomatic or consular representatives of the Republic of the Philippines by prescribing like or similar penalties for like or similar offenses herein contained. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Sec. 8. This Act shall take effect upon its approval.</span><br /></div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-24849593870521556662008-09-12T09:00:00.000-07:002008-09-12T09:19:52.818-07:00Jurisdiction : Bigamy<strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" face="trebuchet ms"></strong><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">PROBLEM :</span> A man (Filipino citizen) married to a Filipina in the Philippines under the Philippine law went to the United States and married a citizen of the United States under the law of the state he resides. What crime he committed?<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Issues:</span><br />1. is there bigamy?<br />2. the jurisdiction of the foreign state?<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Is there bigamy?</span><br /><br /></span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">The Revised Penal Code provides for the following :</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">“Art. 349. Bigamy. — The penalty of prision mayor shall be imposed upon any person who shall contract a second or subsequent marriage before the former marriage has been legally dissolved, or before the absent spouse has been declared presumptively dead by means of a judgment rendered in the proper proceedings. “</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><br />Furthermore, such person’s civil status as a married person does not change when he goes to another country, even when he files for divorce in the United States in regards to his marriage in the Philippines.</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Jurisdiction of the foreign states?</span><br /><br /></span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">Under the Revised Penal code it only recognizes a divorce obtained outside the country as valid if the marriage was contracted elsewhere not in the Philippines, regardless if both are Filipinos or one is an alien.</span><br /> <br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> Therefore, since the first marriage of R took place in the Philippines the divorce obtained by R was generally not sufficient provided R goes there for the sole purpose of obtaining a divorce and no intention of remaining. Generally, his residence there is not sufficient to confer jurisdiction on the court of the foreign state.</span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-59631405936023483612008-08-25T20:03:00.001-07:002008-08-27T04:41:15.830-07:00GRF - MILF Bangsamoro Agreement<a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbNjt_EInB1A8Cvdb31KRexFwEMtTC5IRiK1Qz2jnLdUBwZ4mMGr5DX47Yak8QMpu_pm0n6dfgzLFQSN3Ab6x1ZQ_2o1O7XsewQegAp7Mc7JmlutO1mxCA5Ee16OeTyHxFzksmZF7zomdO/s1600-h/bangsamoro.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbNjt_EInB1A8Cvdb31KRexFwEMtTC5IRiK1Qz2jnLdUBwZ4mMGr5DX47Yak8QMpu_pm0n6dfgzLFQSN3Ab6x1ZQ_2o1O7XsewQegAp7Mc7JmlutO1mxCA5Ee16OeTyHxFzksmZF7zomdO/s320/bangsamoro.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5238784805356801650" border="0" /></a><br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The stalled and now very controversial GRP-MILF AGREEMENT has made many things apparent.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><span style=""></span><b style="">First</b> is the extreme dislike of the Christian majority to give the Moros any semblance of distinct identity. They still maintain and promote the myth of the one-nation one-people. That is of course understandable because they are the great majority. They get all the advantages while the Bangsa Moro people slowly but surely are driven into oblivion.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">Second,</span></b><span style=""> it showed the apparent naivety of the Moros to believe in the sincerity of the government and the political and constitutional processes. Agreeing to a PLEBISCITE in specific locations is a very bad idea. And Congress – both houses – could never be hoped to craft a law favoring the Bangsa Moro’s real aspirations.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">The GRP - MILF Peace Agreement</span></b><span style=""> — on Ancestral Domain has the Indios - otherwise known as Filipinos — up in arms against their government. They are aghast that the Government of the Republic of the Philippines ((GRP) has agreed to give a few hundred square kilometers of territory to what would be called the Bangsamoro Juridical Entity (BJE).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">But the territory mentioned in that agreement is nothing compared to the Bangsa Moro homeland envisioned in the Tripoli Agreement. In the the Tripoli Agreement, the Homeland is composed of 13 (now 14 since Sarangani was made into a new province) provinces; namely: Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, North Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Davao del Sur, Palawan and South Cotabato, which included Sarangani and all the cities in those provinces.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In the Final Peace Agreement signed between the GRP and the MNLF in <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Jakarta</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Indonesia</st1:country-region></st1:place> in 1996 states that it constitutes “the full implementation of the 1976 Tripoli Agreement in letter and spirit…”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Bangsa Moro homeland is based on historical rights. The Sultanate of Maguindanao and Sulu and the Rajaship of Buayan were recognized by foreign powers — the British, Spanish and Dutch empires. Even the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">US</st1:place></st1:country-region> had treaties with the Sultanate of Sulu. The Ranao Confederacy (Pat a Pangampung ku Ranaw) was never conquered by the Spaniards. In fact, <st1:country-region st="on">Spain</st1:country-region>’s only claim to <st1:place st="on">Mindanao</st1:place> was the establishment of a few forts peopled with a sprinkling of Spaniards and settlements of Indios from the Visayas.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In 1946, <st1:country-region st="on">America</st1:country-region> had no right to include Moroland to the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region> when it granted the Indios independence.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">With laws such as the “Colonization of Mindanao Act”, the Indios promptly colonized Moroland by sending millions of Indios to grab the lands and resources of the indigenous peoples of Moroland.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Tripoli Agreement, the Jakarta Accord and the MILF-GRP MOA are but mere setbacks in the centuries-long struggle of the Moros for Freedom, Islam and Homeland.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">A <b style=""><u>Moro</u></b><u> </u>is anyone who has at least one parent or two grand parents who are full-blooded Moros.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">A <b style=""><u>full-blooded Moro</u></b> is one whose parents (father and mother) were born in Mindanao to Muslim parents indigenous to <st1:place st="on">Mindanao</st1:place>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><i style=""><span style="">Exception to this rule:</span></i></b><span style=""> are the members of indigenous peoples of <st1:place st="on">Mindanao</st1:place> who are usually referred to as Moros but many of whom are non-Muslims like the Yakans.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><strong><span style="">OPINION:</span></strong><b><span style=""><br /></span></b><br /><i style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><span style="">Under the <span style="font-weight: bold;">1987 Constitution Article 1</span> (<st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">National</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">Territory</st1:placetype></st1:place>) stated that –</span></i><span style=""><o:p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"></o:p><br /><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the </span><st1:country-region style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" st="on"><st1:place st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);">."</span><o:p></o:p></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The MILF should have learned from the Tripoli Agreement. The Moros were winning the war in the 1970s. Everything the Moros fought for was turned upside down by the government which gave the Moros a non-autonomous “autonomous government” instead.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Therefore, the Supreme Court did not rule on the validity of the Tripoli Agreement but it declared. Assuming for the sake of argument that the Tripoli Agreement is a binding treaty or international agreement, it would then constitute part of the law of the land. But as internal law it would not be superior to R.A. No. 6734, an enactment of the Congress of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Philippines</st1:country-region></st1:place>, rather it would be in the same class as the latter … Thus, if at all, R.A. No. 6734 would be amendatory of the Tripoli Agreement, being a subsequent law.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">From this <u>ruling</u>, it would seem that the government can sign any treaty or agreement with the Moros, and simply pass a subsequent law that would radically amend it. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Organic Act was the final straw that broke the Tripoli Agreement. Because of the Organic Act, the Bangsa Moro homeland was reduced to a handful of provinces and did not even include <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Cotabato</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place>. At first, even <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Marawi</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">City</st1:placetype></st1:place> opted out but joined the ARMM later.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The recent developments have shown to all and sundry – including foreign observers – that the Philippine government cannot be trusted with peace agreements. The Philippine government will sign a million peace agreements but it will never abide by them. This has been proven by the Tripoli Agreement, the Final Peace Agreement and now, the Agreement on Ancestral Domain.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Thus, it is high time that the Bangsa Moro people wake up to reality. The no peace-no war situation is <st1:place st="on">Mindanao</st1:place> should stop as it has been hindering the growth of the country and hampering the lives of the people. While our Asian neighbors leapfrog into 21<sup>st</sup> century as newly industrialized countries and world’s leading economies. The only reason that that GDP growth was achieved was because millions of Filipinos have to slave away abroad, working hard to earn precious dollars and send them to their relatives back home.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">But there will be no peace if the Bangsa Moro peoples will be deprived of their heritage, culture, lands and resources as well as the opportunities for a decent way of life.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">Lastly, the right to self-determination, </span></b><span style="">It is the right of every nation, every people to determine its own destiny, its own path. The Bangsa Moro cannot rely on the other party’s good faith.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">One peaceful way for the Bangsa Moro people is to petition the United Nations to conduct a clean and honest Referendum for and by the Moro people to determine what they want – <st1:city st="on">Independence</st1:city>, Greater Autonomy in a <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">Federal</st1:placename> <st1:placetype st="on">State</st1:placetype></st1:place> or Integration with the dominant Filipino people in one nation-state. And everybody should abide by the results.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The alternative to real peace is real war.<o:p></o:p></span></p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-36848518763681637812008-08-25T20:02:00.000-07:002008-08-27T04:01:13.926-07:00Georgia - Russia Conflict<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnLPuqVo6Nto5BDZE_fLfL6HeculpOlQh4iuIENbIV9g9IkbKyybSe0MuU-eiaN3uCgTZGTILw5rxVMxVmJGd7acJUDcDji0Id0Klu7oAbjX-lczE-TvZ-EI42tiRXio2NQquGKoVYxWTm/s1600-h/Georgia+Map.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnLPuqVo6Nto5BDZE_fLfL6HeculpOlQh4iuIENbIV9g9IkbKyybSe0MuU-eiaN3uCgTZGTILw5rxVMxVmJGd7acJUDcDji0Id0Klu7oAbjX-lczE-TvZ-EI42tiRXio2NQquGKoVYxWTm/s320/Georgia+Map.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5239150802302236418" border="0" /></a><br /><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">This is a cursory glance at the legality of what recently happened between <st1:country-region st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> and <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. This analysis does not aim to be conclusive or exhaustive. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">The most important questions are:<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <ul style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span style="">Was there an armed attack against <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>?<o:p></o:p></span></b></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span style="">Was the Russian use of force in response necessary?<o:p></o:p></span></b></li></ul> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The recent examples of international use of force by major Western powers without a UN Security Council authorization are clearly relevant, especially in a possible theory that they have changed international law.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><strong><span style="">History</span></strong><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"><span style="color:#000000;">Soviet Union</span></a> was divided into territories, often by titular ethnic group. They had varying degrees of autonomy and different places in the administrative hierarchy. Modern countries like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29"><span style="color:#000000;">Georgia</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"><span style="color:#000000;">Ukraine</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"><span style="color:#000000;">Russia</span></a> itself, known as “newly independent states” after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, held the highest place in the hierarchy as the constituent “republics” of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">USSR</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Other territories like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_ossetia"><span style="color:#000000;">South Ossetia</span></a> ended up as pieces of the larger units. Decisions about the structure of this hierarchy were made by Soviet authorities, and often by individual people like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin"><span style="color:#000000;">Joseph Stalin</span></a>. These decisions were sometimes revised, and some units moved up or down in the hierarchy in almost 70 years of the Soviet history. Yet only the top-level territories composing the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">USSR</st1:place></st1:country-region> at the time of its dissolution received international recognition.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">When <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> declared its independence from the Soviet Union, <st1:place st="on">South Ossetia</st1:place> was an “autonomous” unit within the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Socialist_Republic_of_Georgia"><span style="color:#000000;">Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia</span></a>. As was often the case with “autonomous” regions, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossetians"><span style="color:#000000;">ethnicity of the majority South Ossetia’s population</span></a> was different from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_people"><span style="color:#000000;">titular ethnicity of Georgia</span></a>. When <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> separated from the <st1:country-region st="on">USSR</st1:country-region>, South Ossetia declared its independence from <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region>, which sent troops to keep <st1:place st="on">South Ossetia</st1:place> from breaking away. <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region> brokered an agreement to end the war in 1992.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><span style="">Russia</span></st1:country-region><span style=""> stationed its troops in South Ossetia in 1992 under the deal with <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> and <st1:place st="on">South Ossetia</st1:place>. The troops had a peacekeeper status and a mandate to separate Georgians and <st1:place st="on">South Ossetians</st1:place>. The latter have been de facto independent from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region> for 16 years. During this time most of them received Russian citizenship.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">On August 8, 2008, <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> initiated a military assault on <b style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tskhinvali"><span style="color:#000000;">Tskhinvali</span></a>,</b> the <b style="">capital of <st1:place st="on">South Ossetia</st1:place></b>, on August 8, 2008 following a week of clashes with South Ossetian troops. Georgian military shelled the city of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Tskhinvali</st1:place></st1:city> with heavy artillery including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_Launch_Rocket_System"><span style="color:#000000;">MRLS</span></a> (multiple rocket launcher system) and the Georgian air force conducted bombing raids of Tskhinvali. The city fell to Georgians soon after the attack. According to the Russian defence ministry, 12 of its troops stationed in South Ossetia under the 1992 agreement with <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region> were killed and 30 wounded. Their base in Tskhinvali was destroyed.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">On August 8 following the Georgian shelling of Tskhinvali, Russian troops entered South Ossetia from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In five days they repelled the Georgian troops and forced them out of <st1:place st="on">South Ossetia</st1:place>. Russian air force systematically destroyed Georgian military infrastructure in various parts of <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> and bombed the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">port</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Poti</st1:placename></st1:place>. Russian military entered or occupied several towns in <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place> for various lengths of time declaring its intention to destroy or remove abandoned ordnance and maintain security.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">Opinion :<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><strong><span style="">Is the use of force by <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Russia</st1:country-region></st1:place> legal? </span></strong><em><b style=""><span style="">Jus ad bellum</span></b></em><span style=""> - the law of entering into war, is generally based on the UN Charter. A state can use force either with permission of the <b style="">Security Council</b> or in response to an <b style="">armed attack</b> under <b style="">Article 51 of the Charter</b>. The use of force must pass the test of necessity and proportionality.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In their attack on Tskhinvali Georgian forces used weapons designed to inflict maximum destruction and casualties in a large area. The Georgian military was aware of the civilian population in the city and the Russian military contingent present in Tskhinvali under the 1992 agreement. Most residents of Tskhinvali are Russian citizens. South Ossetia is not Russian territory, and it is internationally recognized to be a part of <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> although South Ossetian authorities dispute South Ossetia’s status within <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Georgians acted in violation of the 1992 agreement and either targeted the civilians and the Russian military or attacked the city with reckless disregard for their safety and lives.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Therefore, that the Georgian shelling of Tskhinvali was an armed attack on <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Russia</st1:place></st1:country-region>, the legality of the Russian response by force depends on whether the use of force would be necessary for a legitimate goal under the UN Charter, and whether the cost of the response in civilian lives and damage to civilian property would not outweigh the benefit. For example, if Russians responded by destroying international oil pipelines in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region> to eliminate competition to its energy transit routes, such use of force would be unnecessary and illegal. If <st1:country-region st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> carpet-bombed Georgian cities (like <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> bombed Tskhinvali) declaring its intention to destroy military bases, it would probably also be illegal because the massive loss of civilian lives in <st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region> would be disproportionate to a potential loss of lives, had <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Georgia</st1:place></st1:country-region> continued unfettered.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">So, <st1:country-region st="on">Russia</st1:country-region> did none of these things when it used force against <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Georgia</st1:country-region></st1:place>. Instead, its troops appear to be systematically degrading Georgian military. Initially this was accomplished by artillery and air force with a small number of civilian casualties, and later the preferred method appears to be occupation of Georgian military bases and controlled detonation or removal of ordnance, military vessels, aircraft and infrastructure. At some point the Russian military stopped running into any significant resistance from the Georgian troops.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Are Russian actions necessary to protect the civilian population of <st1:place st="on">South Ossetia</st1:place> and its contingent stationed under the 1992 agreement? <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Lastly, the Russian response to the Georgian attack is its proportionality. To the Russians’ credit, the civilian casualties of their military operation appear minimal, especially compared to some of the recent examples of international use of force unauthorized by the Security Council. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Continuing military operations deep into Georgian territory and fortifying their positions days after a cease-fire and withdrawal of troops has been signed is a clear violation of international law. But as they say ‘there is nothing new under the sun’<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-45851875725676696242008-08-15T18:45:00.000-07:002008-08-15T18:50:36.393-07:00Sen. Pimentel vs Executive Secretary , G.R. No. 158088 , July 6, 2005<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><strong style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(204, 0, 0);">Facts :</strong>This is a petition of Senator Aquilino Pimentel and the other parties to ask the Supreme Court to require the Executive Department to transmit the Rome Statute which established the International Criminal Court for the Senate’s concurrence in accordance with Sec 21, Art VII of the 1987 Constitution.<br /><br />Petitioners contend that that ratification of a treaty, under both domestic law and international law, is a function of the Senate. That under the treaty law and customary international law, Philippines has a ministerial duty to ratify the Rome Statute.<br /><br />Respondents on the other hand, questioned the legal standing of herein petitioners and argued that executive department has no duty to transmit the Rome Statute to the Senate for concurrence.<br /><br /><strong style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(153, 0, 0);">Issues :</strong> Whether or not petitioners have the legal standing to file the instant suit.<br /><br />Whether or not the Executive Secretary and the Department of Foreign Affairs have the ministerial duty to transmit to the Senate the copy of the Rome Statute signed by the Philippine Member to the United Nations even without the signature of the President.<br /><br /><strong style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);">Ruling :</strong> Only Senator Pimentel has a legal standing to the extent of his power as member of Congress. Other petitioners have not shown that they have sustained a direct injury from the non-transmittal and that they can seek redress in our domestic courts.<br /><br />Petitioners’ interpretation of the Constitution is incorrect. The power to ratify treaties does not belong to the Senate.<br /><br />Under E.O. 459, the Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) prepares the ratification papers and forward the signed copy to the President for ratification. After the President has ratified it, DFA shall submit the same to the Senate for concurrence.<br /><br />The President has the sole authority to negotiate and enter into treaties, the Constitution provides a limitation to his power by requiring the concurrence of 2/3 of all the members of the Senate for the validity of the treaty entered into by him. Section 21, Article VII of the 1987 Constitution provides that “no treaty or international agreement shall be valid and effective unless concurred in by at least two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate.” The participation of the legislative branch in the treaty-making process was deemed essential to provide a check on the executive in the field of foreign relations.<br /><br />It should be emphasized that under the Constitution the power to ratify is vested in the President subject to the concurrence of the Senate. The President has the discretion even after the signing of the treaty by the Philippine representative whether or not to ratify a treaty.<br /> <br />The signature does not signify final consent, it is ratification that binds the state to the provisions of the treaty and renders it effective.<br /><br />Senate is limited only to giving or withholding its consent, concurrence to the ratification. It is within the President to refuse to submit a treaty to the Senate or having secured its consent for its ratification, refuse to ratify it. Such decision is within the competence of the President alone, which cannot be encroached by this court via writ of mandamus,<br /> <br /> Thus, the petition is DISMISSED.</div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-36817523976514102372008-08-05T10:00:00.000-07:002008-08-05T10:09:14.300-07:00Links to International Criminal Court<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW2N9QyUGcrXNt9cPfeputdqg84jBvAPgxWWEgmNKsdkTy-Cy4XRvUgVNVlW6x4H3e1k8Nux4QPp9N5o4C6345HbeC-yMrFYR95e06Indn4T8OafcijrF4rOvXZHzTL8-hf4uG6UZKu8hM/s1600-h/icc.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjW2N9QyUGcrXNt9cPfeputdqg84jBvAPgxWWEgmNKsdkTy-Cy4XRvUgVNVlW6x4H3e1k8Nux4QPp9N5o4C6345HbeC-yMrFYR95e06Indn4T8OafcijrF4rOvXZHzTL8-hf4uG6UZKu8hM/s320/icc.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5231081799388024530" border="0" /></a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><br />1. United States and the International Criminal Court (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_and_the_International_Criminal_Court">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_and_the_International_Criminal_Court</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">2. Judges of the International Criminal Court (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judges_of_the_International_Criminal_Court">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judges_of_the_International_Criminal_Court</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">3. People detained by the International Criminal Court (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_detained_by_the_International_Criminal_Court#Detention_centre">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_detained_by_the_International_Criminal_Court#Detention_centre</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">4.Cases before the International Criminal Court (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cases_before_the_International_Criminal_Court">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cases_before_the_International_Criminal_Court</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">5. Complaints to the International Criminal Court (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complaints_to_the_International_Criminal_Court">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complaints_to_the_International_Criminal_Court</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">6. The International Criminal Court and the 2003 invasion of Iraq (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_International_Criminal_Court_and_the_2003_invasion_of_Iraq">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_International_Criminal_Court_and_the_2003_invasion_of_Iraq</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">7. International Criminal Court</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">(</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://www.icc-cpi.int/home.html">http://www.icc-cpi.int/home.html</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">8. Coalition for the International Criminal Court<br />(</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://www.icc-cpi.int/home.html">http://www.icc-cpi.int/home.html</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">9. States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Parties_of_the_International_Criminal_Court">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Parties_of_the_International_Criminal_Court</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">10. The International Criminal Court: An End To Impunity? (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://www.crimesofwar.org/icc_magazine/icc-intro.html">http://www.crimesofwar.org/icc_magazine/icc-intro.html</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">11. The International Criminal Court: Global Policy Forum (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/icc/index.htm">http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/icc/index.htm</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">12. International Criminal Court<br />(</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">13. Crime against humanity<br />(</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_against_humanity">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_against_humanity</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> )</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">14. Crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> ( </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court#Jurisdiction">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court#Jurisdiction</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">15. Genocide definitions<br />(</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_definitions">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_definitions</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">16. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocide</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">17. Victim participation and reparations </span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court#Victim_participation_and_reparations">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court#Victim_participation_and_reparations</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" name="top"></a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">18. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm">http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">19. Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it (</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide#Stages_of_genocide_and_efforts_to_prevent_it">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide#Stages_of_genocide_and_efforts_to_prevent_it</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">20. International Criminal Court: Information and Much More from Answer.com</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">(</span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/icc/index.htm">http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/icc/index.htm</a><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">)</span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-89878688283095137352008-08-05T08:07:00.000-07:002008-08-05T10:06:56.442-07:00International Criminal Court<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8v8cKFYHLoJ-DMmd3e5LdWZGDJ1j3VKzyEXqmXCPvQ2WmPuoyxkx1IqHRkc-Y_8IGlXoFdFd1FXGH_DME8RnVkgxhZ2ochZqxERTiGD89RGZvcAbxODLwlHb4WQQA3xLkCipT1B58fLcr/s1600-h/icc.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8v8cKFYHLoJ-DMmd3e5LdWZGDJ1j3VKzyEXqmXCPvQ2WmPuoyxkx1IqHRkc-Y_8IGlXoFdFd1FXGH_DME8RnVkgxhZ2ochZqxERTiGD89RGZvcAbxODLwlHb4WQQA3xLkCipT1B58fLcr/s320/icc.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5231074173355395042" border="0" /></a><br /><a style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" href="http://www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1. How did the court begin?</span></a><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;" class="cms"><p>The concept of an international court was first discussed in the aftermath of World War II. However, it wasn’t until the 1990s that the first ad hoc international criminal tribunals were set up to deal with war crimes in <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ictr.org/">Rwanda</a> and the former <a target="_blank" href="http://www.un.org/icty/">Yugoslavia</a>. The ad hoc tribunals were limited in their efficiency and deterrent capability, which spurred the need for a permanent court to deal with the world’s most serious crimes. A <a target="_blank" href="http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/about/officialjournal/Rome_Statute_120704-EN.pdf">statute</a> to establish the International Criminal Court (ICC) for creating such a body was approved at a United Nations (UN) conference in Rome on July 17, 1998. After receiving more than sixty ratifications by April 2002, the treaty became legal on July 1, 2002. On March 11, 2003, the ICC opened with Canadian Philippe Kirsch as judge-president, and Elizabeth Odio Benito of Costa Rica and Akua Kuenyenia of Ghana as vice presidents.</p><h5 face="trebuchet ms" style="font-weight: bold; text-align: left;"><a href="http://http//www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">2. Who does the court aim to prosecute?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>The ICC seeks to try individuals who are perpetrators of the world’s most serious crimes such as genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes of aggression. Crimes against humanity include those crimes that systematically exterminate, enslave, torture, rape, and persecute victims based on political, gender, religious, ethnic, national, or cultural differences. War crimes are violations of the international <a target="_blank" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/91.htm">Geneva Convention</a> to protect prisoners of war, and other laws that apply to international armed conflict. For now, the treaty has also listed a crime of “aggression,” but has yet to define what constitutes this crime. In the future, this stipulation may be amended to add other crimes.</p><h5 style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://http//www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">3. What is the relationship between the United States and the ICC?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>At the time of statute negotiations, the United States opposed the court, fearing their soldiers could be subject to prosecutions that were either trivial or politically motivated. In its defense, the United States insisted on immunity for all its military personnel operating in UN peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor and Bosnia-Herzegovina. It was denied immunity in East Timor, but after vetoing a UN-extended peacekeeping mission Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Washington was granted a one-year exemption from prosecution to be renewed every year. The United States also formed bilateral agreements with other nations obliging them not to hand over U.S. personnel to the ICC and passed the <a target="_blank" href="http://www.state.gov/t/pm/rls/othr/misc/23425.htm">American Service Member’s Protection Act</a> authorizing the president to use all means necessary to free U.S. personnel detained by the ICC.</p><p>Former President Bill Clinton did eventually sign the treaty at the end of his second term, but U.S. support for the treaty was quickly withdrawn when President George W. Bush un-signed the treaty in 2002.</p><h5 style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://http//www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">4. What other countries are not involved?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>In total, seven countries voted against the statute: China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United States, and Yemen. China objected on grounds that “the statute is an attempt to interfere with the domestic affairs of a sovereign nation.” Other non-members include India, Iran, Japan, North Korea, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, and Turkey. While most Western European and South American countries are signatories, there is only one Arab nation member—Jordan—and five Asian members—Afghanistan, Cambodia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Tajikistan.</p><h5 style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://http//www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">5. What cases are on the docket now?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) has been referred cases from Uganda, the Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In addition, the United Nations Security Council gave its first referral for the Darfur region of Sudan to the OTP in March 2005. In accordance with the Statute of Rome, the OTP has decided to open investigation in Uganda, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Darfur, Sudan.</p><h5 style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://http//www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">6. What is the relationship between the International Court and the national courts?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>The ICC is based on a principle of complementarity. This means that the ICC can only act when a national court is unable or unwilling to carry out a prosecution itself because the ICC was not created to supplant the authority of the national courts. However, when a state’s legal system collapses or when a government is a perpetrator of heinous crimes, the ICC can exercise jurisdiction.</p><h5 style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://http//www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">7</span><span style="font-size:130%;">. What is the difference between the ICC and other international courts such as the international criminal tribunals and the UN’s International Court of Justice?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>The international criminal tribunals in Rwanda and formerYugoslavia can only try individuals who committed crimes against humanity in those territories over a specific period of time. The International Criminal Court, on the other hand, can rule on all crimes committed against humanity regardless of its location so long as they have occurred after July 1, 2002. The role of the <a target="_blank" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/">International Court of Justice</a> is to rule on arguments that occur between governments. Unlike the International Criminal Court, it does not have the ability to try individuals.</p><h5><a href="http://www.cfr.org/publication/8981/frequently_asked_questions_about_the_international_criminal_court.html"><span style="font-size:130%;">8. Who funds the court?</span></a></h5> <div class="cms"><p>The ICC, as an independent body, is funded primarily by its member states. The contributions of each state are determined by the same method used by the UN, which roughly corresponds with a country’s income. Additional funding is provided by voluntary government contributions, international organizations, individuals, corporations, and other entities. The United Nations may provide funding if it is approved by the General Assembly and is related to a “situation” referred to the court by the Security Council.</p><p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>9. What is the ICC?</b></a></span></p> <p>The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent international tribunal that will try individuals responsible for the most serious international crimes. One hundred and sixty countries attended a U.N.-sponsored conference in Rome in 1998 to draft a treaty for the establishment of the ICC. After five weeks of intense negotiations, 120 countries voted to adopt the treaty. Only seven countries voted against it (including China, Libya, Iraq, and the United States) and 21 abstained. Before the court can be set up, 60 countries need to ratify the treaty. 139 states signed the treaty by the 31 December 2000 deadline. The treaty entered into force on July 1, 2002. As of July 18, 2008, <a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/ratifications.htm">108 states have ratified it</a>.</p><p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>10. What crimes does the ICC prosecute?</b></a></span></p> <p>The ICC will prosecute individuals accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, all defined in the court's treaty. The ICC will help ensure that these serious crimes, which have long been recognized by the international community, no longer go unpunished because of the unwillingness or inability of individual countries to prosecute them.<br /></p><p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><span style="font-size:130%;"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>11. Who can be brought to trial before the ICC?</b></a></span></p> The ICC will have jurisdiction over crimes committed by the nationals of governments that ratify the treaty, or in the territories of governments that ratify. It can try any individual responsible for such crimes, regardless of his or her civilian or military status or official position.<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);font-size:130%;" ><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>12. What are the rights of those accused of a crime by the ICC?</b></a></span><br /><br />The ICC treaty contains a detailed list of the rights that any accused person shall enjoy, including the presumption of innocence, the right to counsel, to present evidence, the right to remain silent, and the right to have charges proved beyond a reasonable doubt.<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);font-size:130%;" ><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>13. How will national courts and the ICC work together?</b></a></span><br /><p>The treaty gives the ICC jurisdiction that is complementary to national jurisdictions. This "principle of complementarity," as it is known, gives states the primary responsibility and duty to prosecute the most serious international crimes, while allowing the ICC to step in only as a last resort if the states fail to implement their duty -- that is, only if investigations and, if appropriate, prosecutions are not carried out in good faith. Bona fide efforts to discover the truth and to hold accountable those responsible for any acts of genocide, crimes against humanity, or war crimes will bar the ICC from proceeding.</p> <p>At a press conference on June 12, 2002, U.S. Secretary of Defense William Cohen, while opposing the ICC, admitted that the court's limited authority would protect US troops and officials: "We have demonstrated over the years wherever there is an allegation of abuse on the part of a soldier we have a judicial system that will deal with it very effectively," Cohen said. "As long as we have a respected judicial system then there should be some insulation factor." That is, the ICC would then be barred from proceedings against Americans. </p> <a name="How is the ICC different"></a> <p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>14. How is the ICC different from the International Court of Justice (World Court) and other existing international tribunals?</b></a></p> <p>The International Court of Justice (ICJ or World Court) is a civil tribunal that hears disputes between countries. The ICC is a criminal tribunal that will prosecute individuals. The two ad hoc war crimes tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda are similar to the ICC but have limited geographical scope while the ICC will be global in its reach. The ICC, as a permanent court, will also avoid the delay and start-up costs of creating country specific tribunals from scratch each time the need arises.</p> <a name="What good can"></a> <p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>15. What good can the International Criminal Court do?</b></a></p> <p>The ICC will help end the impunity often enjoyed by those responsible for the most serious international human rights crimes. It will provide incentives and guidance for countries that want to prosecute such criminals in their own courts, and it will offer permanent back up in cases where countries are unwilling or unable to try these criminals themselves, because of violence, intimidation, or a lack of resources or political will. </p> <p>As noted, the ICC is not intended to replace national courts. Domestic judicial systems remain the first line of accountability in prosecuting these crimes. The ICC ensures that those who commit the most serious human rights crimes are punished even if national courts are unable or unwilling to do so. Indeed, the possibility of an ICC proceeding may encourage national prosecutions in states that would otherwise avoid bringing war criminals to trial.</p> <a name="Who can join"></a> <p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>16. Who can join the ICC?</b></a></p> <p>All countries of the world can ratify the ICC treaty. Members must accept the court's jurisdiction and cooperate with the court in investigating and prosecuting crimes and enforcing penalties.<br /><br /><a name="Where will the ICC"></a> <a style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><strong>17. Where is the ICC located and who is paying for the court?</strong></a><br /><br />The ICC has its permanent seat in The Hague, the Netherlands. When necessary, it may also make arrangements to sit in other countries. The countries that belong to the ICC determine its budget and provide the necessary funding. The United Nations also contributes funds, especially when the ICC investigates and prosecutes cases referred to it by the U.N. Security Council. </p> <a name="Security Council"></a> <p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>18. How do the ICC and the Security Council work together?</b></a></p> <p>The Security Council may refer cases to the ICC for investigation and prosecution. The Security Council may also request the ICC to suspend investigations for 12 months at a time if it feels that ICC proceedings might interfere with the Security Council's responsibility to maintain peace and security. This arrangement makes it difficult for any one permanent Security Council member to manipulate the ICC while permitting the Security Council to resolve any genuine conflicts of interest with the ICC. </p> <p> <a name="How politically motivated"></a> <a style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);" href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>19. How politically motivated cases be avoided?</b></a></p> <p>Many safeguards exist in the ICC treaty to prevent frivolous or politically motivated cases. For example, all indictments will require confirmation by a Pre-Trial Chamber of judges, which will examine the evidence supporting the indictment before issuing it. The accused and any concerned countries will have an opportunity to challenge the indictment during confirmation hearings before the Pre-Trial Chamber. In addition, any investigation initiated by the prosecutor will first have to be approved by the Pre-Trial Chamber.</p> <p>Prosecutors and judges all undergo rigorous scrutiny before they are elected and appointed to the court. The treaty establishes strict criteria for the selection of the prosecutor and the judges, requiring experts whose reputation, moral character and independence are beyond reproach. They are prohibited from any activity during their term in office that might jeopardize their independence, and can be excused from particular cases if there is any question of partiality. Ultimately, in the unlikely event that they abuse their powers, they can be impeached. </p> <p>States that join the ICC will nominate persons to be elected as judges and prosecutor. Only those eligible to hold high judicial office in their own country can be nominated as judges of the ICC. </p> <a name="What happens"></a> <p style="color: rgb(51, 51, 255);"><a href="http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"><b>20. What happens if a country does not ratify the treaty?</b></a></p> <p>Countries that fail to ratify the ICC treaty will be prohibited from participating in the nomination of the court's judges and prosecutor. They will also lose the privilege of contributing to decisions about the budget and administrative operations.</p><a href="http://http//www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/qna.htm"></a></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-61784544967797646732008-08-01T19:40:00.000-07:002008-08-01T19:53:52.175-07:00RECOGNITION<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">Tobar - Wilson Doctrine</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></b><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">A doctrine that precludes recognition of any government established by revolution, civil war, coup d’ etat or other forms of internal violence until the freely elected representatives of the people have organized a constitutional government.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">First expressed in the 1907 Central American Republics at the suggestion of Foreign Minister Tobar of <st1:country-region st="on">Ecuador</st1:country-region> and reiterated by President Woodrow Wilson of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">US</st1:place></st1:country-region> in a public statement made in 1913.</span></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><strong> Example :</strong> The Revolution in Nicaragua in which through the moral mandate of US, communicated to rebels in order to foster a true consititutional government and free elections aimed for the preservation of general welfare of Central America.<br /></p><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="">Stimson Doctrine<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">* </span><span style="">Precludes the recognition of any government established as a result of external aggression.<o:p></o:p></span><span style=""><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Formulated by US Secretary of State Stimson in 1932.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Adopted by the League of Nations through a resolution stating that: “It is incumbent upon the members of the League of Nations not to recognize any situation, treaty or agreement which may be brought about by means contrary to the Covenant of the <st1:place st="on">League of Nations</st1:place> or to the Pact of Paris”<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"></strong> <strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"> Example :</strong><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" > The United States did not recognize the Japanese-supported government in Manchukuo (1932) or the Italian government in Ethiopia (1936).</span><br /><br /> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style=""> Estrada Doctrine<o:p></o:p></span></b></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">The diplomatic representatives in a country where a political upheaval has taken place will deal or will not deal with whatever government is in control at the time and either action shall not be taken as a judgment on the legitimacy of the said government.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Attributed to Foreign Minister Genaro Estrada of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Mexico</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">*<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">Example: Recognition of PROC based on the ‘one china policy’</span><strong><br /></strong></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><strong>Example : </strong>Many Latin Americans condemn the idea of the US unilaterally "certifying" nations as fighting against the drug trade<br /><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"></p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-78721596821595502242008-08-01T19:26:00.000-07:002008-08-01T19:27:49.079-07:00CMC vs. Callega, G.R. no. 85750, September 28, 1990<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 130%; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 204, 51);"><strong></strong></span></span><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255); font-family: trebuchet ms;"><strong>Facts :</strong> </span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">After the Vietnam War, the international community was confronted with a problem on the plight of Vietnamese refugees fleeing from South Vietnam. In response, an agreement was forged between Philippine Government and United Nations High Commissioner for refugees to create an operating center for the resettlement of refugees. </span> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />Under the said agreement, the International Catholic Migration Commission (ICMC) was accredited by the Philippine Government to operate the refugee processing center in Morong, Bataan. The ICMC was considered a non-profit agency involved in international and humanitarian and voluntary work. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />However, on July 14, 1986, the Trade Unions of the Philippines and Allied Service (TUPAS) filed to the then Ministry of Labor and Employment a Petition for Certification Election among the rank and file members employed by ICMC. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />Afterwhich, while ICMC’s request for recognition as a “specialized agency” was still pending, Director Pura Calleja of the Bureau of Labor Relations (BLR) ordered ICMC the immediate conduct of certification of election. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />Subsequently, through the Department of Foreign Affairs (DEFORAF) the ICMC was granted a status of a specialized agency with corresponding diplomatic priveleges and immunities. ICMC then sought immediate dismissal of TUPAS petition invoking immunities expressly granted but were twice denied by respondent BLR director. Thus, the present Petition for Certiorari is now at bar.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Issue :</span></strong> Whether or not the grant of diplomatic priveleges and immunities to ICMC extends to immunity from the application of Philippine labor laws<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Held :</span></strong> The immunity granted being from every form of legal process except in any particular case they have expressly waived the immunity.<br />Respondent’s claim in so far as stating that a certification of election is beyond the scope of immunity. That such is not a suit against ICMC but mere investigation of a non-adversary fact-finding character were all rejected. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />The immunuties accorded to international organization constitute a categorical recognition by the executive branch of the Government. Its determination is held to be a political question and courts should refuse to look beyond a determination by the Executive Branch. Where the plea of diplomatic immunity is recognized an affirmed by the executive branch as in the case at bar, it is then the duty of the courts to accept the claim of immunity upon appropriate suggestion of the principal law officer of the government or other officer acting under his direction - as for this case the DEFORAF. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />Moreover, the exercise of jurisdiction by the Department of Labor would defeat the very purpose of immunity, which is to shield the affairs of internatinal organizations, in accordance with international practice, from political pressure or control by the host country and to ensure unhampered perfromance of their functions. </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br />Petition is GRANTED. </div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-42025585416881989332008-08-01T19:22:00.000-07:002008-08-01T19:26:34.813-07:00Marcos vs. Manglapus, G.R. no. 88211, September 15, 1989<strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="font-size: 130%;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 204, 51);"></span></span></strong><strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Facts :</span> </strong><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">In February 1986, Ferdinand E. Marcos was deposed from presidency via people power and forced into exile in Hawaii. Nearly three years after, in his deathbed seeks return to the Philippines to die. </span><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />Thus, this petition for mandamus and prohibition asks the Court to order the respondent to issue travel documents to Mr. Marcos and the immediate members of his family and to enjoin the the implementation of President Aquino’s decision to bar their return to the Philippines. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />Petitioners contend that the right of the Marcoses to return to the Philippines is guaranteed under the Bill of Rights. That the President is without power to impair the liberty of abode of the Marcoses because only the court may do so “within the limits prescribed by law.” The President has enumerated powers and what is not enumerated is impliedly denied to her.<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: rgb(255, 204, 51);"><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Issues :</span> </span></strong>Whether or not the President has the power under the Constitution, to bar Marcoses from returning to the Philippines </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />Whether or not the President acted arbitrarily or with grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction upon determining that the Marcoses’s return poses a serious threat to national interest and welfare and decided to bar their return<br /><br /><strong><span style="color: rgb(51, 102, 255);">Held :</span></strong> The executive power of the President under the Constitution is more than the sum of specific powers enumerated under the Constitution. In balancing the general welfare and the common good against the exercise of rights of certain individuals, the power involved is the President’s residual power to protect the general welfare of the people. Presidential power is a wide discretion, within the bounds of laws and extraordinary in times of emergency. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />The President did not act arbitrarily or with grave abuse of discretion in determining that the return of former President Marcos and his family poses a serious threat to national interest and welfare. There exist factual bases in the President’s decision in the pleadings, oral arguments and facts filed by the parties during the briefing in chambers by the Chief of Staff of the Armed of the Philppines and National Security Adviser. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />That the President has the power under the Constitution to bar the Macrose’s from returning has been recognized by the members of the Legislature. Through a Resolution proposed in the House of Representative, signed by 103 members urging the President to allow Mr. Marcos to return to the Philippines –an act of true national reconciliation. The Resolution does not question the President’s power but was an appeal to allow a man to come home and to die in his country. Such request submit to the exercise of a broader discretion on the part of the President to determine whether it must be granted or not. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />The case is not a political question and for such, the court exercised its judicial power involving the determination whether there has been a grave abuse of discretion on the part of any branch or instrumnetality of the government. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />Petition is hereby DISMISSED. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><span style="font-size: 130%;"><strong></strong></span></div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><span style="font-size: 130%;"><strong></strong></span></div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><span style="font-size: 130%;"><strong></strong></span></div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><span style="font-size: 130%;"><strong><br /></strong></span></div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><span style="font-size: 130%;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 204, 51);"><strong><br /></strong></span></span></div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-62324199658897157322008-07-22T07:54:00.000-07:002008-08-05T09:43:12.772-07:00Sudan Conflict<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtzW6bOBN0ATKlxLQR2G3FzYruK79EmRJ5wuZeYJg2FWEjhTlcQofom2lYIsk22Fg5ym4-Hk6TwxXx7dsmT6NNsCo-VNavWaohfqByoeuH09LRN2Olz0bvBVhNqSVSatZ_pL1aQLCc_-4M/s1600-h/SUDAN238.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtzW6bOBN0ATKlxLQR2G3FzYruK79EmRJ5wuZeYJg2FWEjhTlcQofom2lYIsk22Fg5ym4-Hk6TwxXx7dsmT6NNsCo-VNavWaohfqByoeuH09LRN2Olz0bvBVhNqSVSatZ_pL1aQLCc_-4M/s320/SUDAN238.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5231075082885197250" border="0" /></a><br /><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" class="bodytext"><span style="">Population: 34,500,000 <br /><br />Capital: <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Khartoum</st1:city></st1:place><br /><br />Area: 967,493 Sq. Miles<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" class="bodytext"><span style="">People: Black 52 %, Arab 39%, Beja 6%,<br /><br />Religion: Sunni Muslim 70%, indigenous beliefs 25%,<br />Christian 3%<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><span class="bodytext1"><span style="">Sudan</span></span></st1:country-region><span class="bodytext1"><span style="">, <st1:place st="on">Africa</st1:place>’s largest country, has endured civil war for all but 10 years since it achieved independence in 1956, after nearly 80 years of British rule. One of the world’s poorest, most backward countries, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> sits on a sea of oil that cannot be exploited due to the continuing conflict. Despite its vast size, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> is largely a forgotten land torn by a complex struggle that stems from its colonial experience, its ethnic and religious divisions and from the self-interests that take precedence over progress. </span></span><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span class="bodytext1"><span style="">Historically, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> has been viewed as a nation divided between north and south. <b style="">The <u>North</u> is more developed and more prosperous, is influenced by</b> <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on"><b style="">Egypt</b></st1:country-region></st1:place><b style=""> and is predominately Muslim.</b> <b style="">The <u>South</u> is home to untapped natural resources, Christian and animist beliefs, poverty and a resilient rebel movement.<o:p></o:p></b></span></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" align="center"><span style=""> <hr align="center" size="2" width="100%"> </span></div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">During most of the 1800s, <st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> was controlled by the Turko-Egyptian (<st1:place st="on">Ottoman Empire</st1:place>) and developed a substantial slave trade. In 1881, Muhammed Ahmad el Mahdi, (the Rightly Guided One) led a rebellion of northern tribes, driving the Egyptians from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. In 1896, the British and Egyptian allies invaded and defeated the Mahdist forces in 1898 at the battle of <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Omdurman</st1:place></st1:city>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Anglo-Egyptian allies created a so-called “condominium” administration in the capital <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Khartoum</st1:place></st1:city> and focused their attention on developing agriculture in the North. The North was predominately Muslim and more similar to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Egypt</st1:place></st1:country-region> than the traditionally African South. The British exploited ethnic and religious differences as a means to maintain control, as they had in many other colonies. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The South of Sudan was declared a “closed area” and was isolated in almost all respects. After <st1:city st="on">World War II</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Britain</st1:country-region> prepared to abandon its colony, but wanted to prevent <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Egypt</st1:place></st1:country-region> from gaining total control. To counterbalance <st1:country-region st="on">Egypt</st1:country-region>’s influence in the North, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region> sought to include Southerners in a federated government and opened the closed areas. <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> gained its independence in 1956. As usual, the stage was set for violent conflict and factions fought for control over a weak and ineffectual government in <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Khartoum</st1:place></st1:city>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In 1958 General Abboud seized power, established military rule and pursued an agenda of Arabization. He was quickly confronted by the Anya Nya rebels and the allied Sudan African National Union (SANU). Abboud was deposed in 1964 as civil war escalated. In 1969 Col. Mohammed Jaa’far Nimeiri seized power and declared an Islamic state, its policies based on Shar’ia, or Islamic law. He negotiated the Addis Abba Accord, which brought a ceasefire and limited autonomy for the South.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">After the government reneged on portions of the agreement, a new rebel force emerged in the South. With foreign support, <u>Dr. John Garang led the <st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></u> <u>people’s Liberation Army and Movement (SPLA/M</u>) as it took control over substantial areas in southern <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Khartoum</st1:place></st1:city>, other dissident factions overthrew Nimieiri in 1985. Government instability continued until 1989 when General el-Bashir and the National Islamic Front gained control. El-Bashir declared a holy jihad and mounted increasingly successful counter attacks against the SPLA.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Under pressure, <b style="">SPLA broke into two factions</b>: <b style="">SPLA-Mainstream (led by Garang)</b> and <b style="">SPLA-United led by Dr. Rick Mashar</b>). SPLA-United has suffered from infighting but remains a source of friction and influence in isolated areas. SPLA-Mainstream emerged as the more powerful of the rebel factions established an area of influence in the Upper Nile and <st1:place st="on">Southern Kordofan</st1:place> region. In northeastern <st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> another rebel group, the Sudan Allied Forces, are waging their own battles against the <st1:city st="on">Khartoum</st1:city> government in the <st1:place st="on">Darfur</st1:place> provinces. Given <st1:city st="on">Khartoum</st1:city>’s limited resources and capabilities much of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> is essentially without any form of government. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">Sudan</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="">’s civil war is being fought essentially without rules. All of the factions, government or guerrilla, have committed atrocities, without concern for human rights, or condemnation and sanctions from an international community that isn’t watching. The death toll is unknown and humanitarian organizations estimate refugees numbers as high as 4 million, of which as many as 2 million have died while in flight.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Ironically, much of the conflict is a battle for control of resources in the South, even though no one seems capable of developing the resources. It’s estimated that <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> oil reserves may be as much as 200 billion barrels. Until <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> can develop a more diverse economic base, its people rely on the country’s fragile agricultural base, prone to drought and resulting famines. Extensive efforts to produce food are devastating the land. Between war and famine unknown millions of people have been displaced and forced to migrate to other regions and neighboring states. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In 1999, an international consortium built an oil pipeline from the Muglad basin to the <st1:place st="on">Red Sea</st1:place>. Rebels immediately started a bombing campaign targeting the pipeline. Meanwhile, the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Khartoum</st1:place></st1:city> government is plagued by factional power struggles among the various Muslim groups, while there is essentially no political participation from the rebel-held Southern territories.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><span style="">Sudan</span></st1:country-region><span style=""> shares borders with <st1:country-region st="on">Egypt</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">Libya</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">Chad</st1:country-region>, the <st1:country-region st="on">Central African Republic</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">Zaire</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">Uganda</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">Kenya</st1:country-region>, <st1:country-region st="on">Ethiopia</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Eritrea</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Virtually all of these states have their own political problems, continuing conflicts and diverse interests. Given the size of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> and absence of security measures, the region has become a base or transit point for assorted guerrillas and terrorists. Amid this cauldron of dissent, Islamist fundamentalists have tried to make headway. <i style="">Osama bin Laden set up operations in <st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region> before being expelled and relocating al-Qaeda to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Afghanistan</st1:place></st1:country-region>. <o:p></o:p></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span class="bodytext1"><span style="">On the tenth anniversary of the <st1:country-region st="on">Rwanda</st1:country-region> genocide that claimed an estimated 800,000 lives, UN Secretary General expressed growing international concern about the conflict in the <i style="">western Darfur region of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region></i>. Civil war in <st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region>'s western provinces has driven an estimated 100,000 black African civilians to seek refuge in neighboring <st1:country-region st="on">Chad</st1:country-region> to escape reported attacks from Arab militias affiliated with the <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Khartoum</st1:place></st1:city> government. The Sudanese government has refused access to the region by aid groups and independent observers, hence information is based on reports from refugees arriving in <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Chad</st1:country-region></st1:place>. </span></span><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <h4 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><span style="">Brutal wars in <st1:place st="on">Africa</st1:place>'s biggest country<o:p></o:p></span></h4> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Sudan, the largest country in Africa, has been at war for nearly 50 years. We look at three main conflicts: </span><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">A brutal 21-year <a href="http://members.alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/SD_PEA.htm?v=at_a_glance" target="new">civil war between the north and the south</a> that ended in 2005 <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The ongoing <a href="http://members.alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/SD_DAR.htm?v=at_a_glance" target="new">humanitarian crisis in Darfur</a> in the west where at least 200,000 have died and 2.5 million been displaced by fighting since 2003 <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Tensions in <a href="http://members.alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/SD_INS.htm?v=at_a_glance" target="new">eastern Sudan</a> where insurgents have threatened to challenge the government for a share of the country's power and natural-resources. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">An obvious question is</span></b><span style="">: Why is <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place> plagued by internal conflict, and how are these three conflicts related, if at all? There is no easy answer, but a few explanations do shed light on the problem. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">First,</span></b><span style=""> colonisers drew the boundaries of present-day <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place> without heed to the different religious and ethnic groups that already inhabited the territory, which was under joint Anglo-Egyptian control until 1956. This set the stage for showdowns between the <b style=""><u>north, populated predominantly by Arab Muslims</u></b>, and the <b style=""><u>south, populated largely by animists and Christians of African origin</u></b>. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The British lit the tinderbox when they left by leaving an elite group of northerners in charge. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">Second,</span></b><span style=""> over the years those in power in <st1:city st="on">Khartoum</st1:city> have marginalised southerners, Darfuris and several other groups in various pockets of the country, including provinces in eastern <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In addition, the Islamist policies of the government in the 1990s added to the alienation of the southerners. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style="">Third,</span></b><span style=""> rebels in all corners of the country share similar grievances over <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Khartoum</st1:city></st1:place>'s failure to provide even the most basic of services, and widespread abject poverty has fueled calls to share the wealth. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The discovery of oil in southern <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Sudan</st1:place></st1:country-region> in 1978 only raised the stakes. <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place> rakes in up to $1 billion year in oil exports but there is little in the way of social services to show for it. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In 2005, it looked as though <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Sudan</st1:country-region></st1:place> had finally moved to put its house in order. The government and the main rebel group in the south, the <b style=""><u>Sudanese People's</u></b> <b style=""><u>Liberation Movement (SPLM</u></b>), signed a peace deal that ended the north-south civil war. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">A new power-sharing government was sworn in. But the peace deal looks shaky. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The conflict in <st1:place st="on"><b style="">Darfur</b></st1:place> and the possibility of new violence in the <b style="">east</b>, where rebels have the same grievances as those elsewhere in the country, threaten to derail the entire process. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Former SPLM rebels are now in the central government as ministers, so the fates of the south and of other troubled areas are increasingly linked. And as SPLM soldiers have supported the rebels in the east, the south could yet play a role in further conflict with <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on"><b style="">Khartoum</b></st1:city></st1:place><b style="">.<o:p></o:p></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><b style=""><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p><strong style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">China : Criticized of supporting Sudan </strong><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><strong><br /></strong>As based on Security Council’s YALTA formula, substantive issues which requires the Security Council under it’s responsibility of maintaining or restoring world peace to invoke measures of enfrocement – the approval of which needs 9 votes including the Big Five (China as one of the Big 5). With the veto power vested to the so-called Big 5 , one vote from any of them will totally reject a draft of resolution or proposal of possible preventive measures. Under this Rule of Great-Power Unanimity, the Security Council is unable to function once any of the Big 5 exercises it’s veto power. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />"Human Rights First" claimed that over 90% of the light weapons currently being imported by Sudan and used in the conflict are from China; however, according to <a title="Stockholm International Peace Research Institute" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute">Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</a> (SIPRI)'s "Arms Transfers Data for 2007", between 2003-2007, Sudan received 87 per cent of its major conventional weapons from Russia and 8 per cent from China.[ Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China's role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain oil and gas just as colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as they extracted natural resources. According to China's critics, China has offered Sudan support threatening to use its veto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctions and has been able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its interests in Sudan. In response to these allegations, Chinese Ambassador to Sudan Li Chengwen said that "China played an important role in promoting the agreement of the Sudanese government, the African Union and the UN for the deployment of the Hybrid Force in Darfur. China's view is that intensive economic development of the region is a more effective means than harsh economic sanctions, in the effort to stabilize the crisis and alleviate the suffering of the people".<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darfur_conflict#cite_note-59#cite_note-59">[60]</a> Chinese Premier <a title="Wen Jiabao" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wen_Jiabao">Wen Jiabao</a> reiterated these views on February 20, 2008, and "pointed out that China was the first non-African nation to send peacekeepers to Darfur and the biggest development aid provider to the region". However accusations of the supply of weapons from China in breach of a UN embargo continue to arise.</div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />Prosecutor for the International Criminal Court (ICC) has put countries providing arms to Sudan on notice that they are arming a potentially indicted war criminal, as well as likely violating the Genocide Convention, said Human Rights First.</div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />China's trade and oil interests in Sudan have induced the permanent U.N. Security Council member to provide diplomatic cover for the government accused by many of war crimes against its own people, analysts say. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />Sudan has had its back against the wall of the U.N. headquarters in New York during the past 18 months over the conflict in Darfur, where tens of thousands of people have died as a result of violence the United States called genocide. But the spectre of a Chinese veto has shielded Sudan from possible sanctions over the conflict and in turn protected a growing source of much-needed oil for Beijing. "This is RealPolitik," said Adwoa Kufuor, a human rights analyst on Sudan. "Yes China has economic interests ... and yes China will not risk offending the government of Sudan."<br />China's heavy but understated presence in Sudan is symbolised by the vast, walled compound housing its embassy on prime real estate in Khartoum. It dominates Sudan's crude oil sector, which produces around 330,000 barrels per day, and is building roads, bridges and dams. China has become Sudan's biggest foreign investor with $4 billion in projects. </div><div style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="justify"><br />China has in the past "sold" its UN veto power to protect Sudan from sanctions over the killing of people in Darfur in exchange for access to Sudanese oil. China is now Sudan's biggest customer. </div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-8526677467335889132008-07-22T07:51:00.000-07:002008-07-22T09:14:31.288-07:00Montevideo Convention<h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">Montevideo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style=""> Convention on the Rights and Duties of States <o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Published December 26, 1933<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><em><span style="">This treaty was signed at the International Conference of American States in <st1:city st="on">Montevideo</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Uruguay</st1:place></st1:country-region> on December 26, 1933. It entered into force on December 26, 1934. The treaty discusses the definition and rights of statehood. </span></em><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">CONVENTION ON RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF STATES<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Governments represented in the Seventh International Conference of American States:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Who, after having exhibited their Full Powers, which were found to be in good and due order, have agreed upon the following:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 1<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: a ) a permanent population; b ) a defined territory; c ) government; and d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 2<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The federal state shall constitute a sole person in the eyes of international law.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 3<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states. Even before recognition the state has the right to defend its integrity and independence, to provide for its conservation and prosperity, and consequently to organize itself as it sees fit, to legislate upon its interests, administer its services, and to define the jurisdiction and competence of its courts.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The exercise of these rights has no other limitation than the exercise of the rights of other states according to international law.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 4<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">States are juridically equal, enjoy the same rights, and have equal capacity in their exercise. The rights of each one do not depend upon the power which it possesses to assure its exercise, but upon the simple fact of its existence as a person under international law.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 5<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The fundamental rights of states are not susceptible of being affected in any manner whatsoever.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 6<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The recognition of a state merely signifies that the state which recognizes it accepts the personality of the other with all the rights and duties determined by international law. Recognition is unconditional and irrevocable.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 7<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The recognition of a state may be express or tacit. The latter results from any act which implies the intention of recognizing the new state.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 8<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 9<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The jurisdiction of states within the limits of national territory applies to all the inhabitants.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Nationals and foreigners are under the same protection of the law and the national authorities and the foreigners may not claim rights other or more extensive than those of the nationals.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 10<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The primary interest of states is the conservation of peace. Differences of any nature which arise between them should be settled by recognized pacific methods.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 11<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The contracting states definitely establish as the rule of their conduct the precise obligation not to recognize territorial acquisitions or special advantages which have been obtained by force whether this consists in the employment of arms, in threatening diplomatic representations, or in any other effective coercive measure. The territory of a state is inviolable and may not be the object of military occupation nor of other measures of force imposed by another state directly or indirectly or for any motive whatever even temporarily.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 12<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The present Convention shall not affect obligations previously entered into by the High Contracting Parties by virtue of international agreements.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 13<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The present Convention shall be ratified by the High Contracting Parties in conformity with their respective constitutional procedures. The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Republic</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Uruguay</st1:placename></st1:place> shall transmit authentic certified copies to the governments for the aforementioned purpose of ratification. The instrument of ratification shall be deposited in the archives of the Pan American Union in <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">Washington</st1:place></st1:state>, which shall notify the signatory governments of said deposit. Such notification shall be considered as an exchange of ratifications.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 14<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The present Convention will enter into force between the High Contracting Parties in the order in which they deposit their respective ratifications.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></h3> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 15<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The present Convention shall remain in force indefinitely but may be denounced by means of one year's notice given to the Pan American Union, which shall transmit it to the other signatory governments. After the expiration of this period the Convention shall cease in its effects as regards the party which denounces but shall remain in effect for the remaining High Contracting Parties.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">ARTICLE 16<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The present Convention shall be open for the adherence and accession of the States which are not signatories. The corresponding instruments shall be deposited in the archives of the Pan American Union which shall communicate them to the other High Contracting Parties.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In witness whereof, the following Plenipotentiaries have signed this Convention in Spanish, English, Portuguese and French and hereunto affix their respective seals in the city of <st1:city st="on">Montevideo</st1:city>, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">Republic</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Uruguay</st1:placename></st1:place>, this 26th day of December, 1933.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">RESERVATIONS<o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Delegation of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">United States of America</st1:place></st1:country-region>, in signing the Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, does so with the express reservation presented to the Plenary Session of the Conference on December 22, 1933, which reservation reads as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The Delegation of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region>, in voting "yes" on the final vote on this committee recommendation and proposal, makes the same reservation to the eleven articles of the project or proposal that the United States Delegation made to the first ten articles during the final vote in the full Commission, which reservation is in words as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">"The policy and attitude of the United States Government toward every important phase of international relationships in this hemisphere could scarcely be made more clear and definite than they have been made by both word and action especially since March 4. I [Secretary of State Cordell Hull, chairman of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">U.S.</st1:place></st1:country-region> delegation] have no disposition therefore to indulge in any repetition or rehearsal of these acts and utterances and shall not do so. Every observing person must by this time thoroughly understand that under the Roosevelt Administration the United States Government is as much opposed as any other government to interference with the freedom, the sovereignty, or other internal affairs or processes of the governments of other nations.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">"In addition to numerous acts and utterances in connection with the carrying out of these doctrines and policies, President Roosevelt, during recent weeks, gave out a public statement expressing his disposition to open negotiations with the Cuban Government for the purpose of dealing with the treaty which has existed since 1903. I feel safe in undertaking to say that under our support of the general principle of non-intervention as has been suggested, no government need fear any intervention on the part of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region> under the Roosevelt Administration. I think it unfortunate that during the brief period of this Conference there is apparently not time within which to prepare interpretations and definitions of these fundamental terms that are embraced in the report. Such definitions and interpretations would enable every government to proceed in a uniform way without any difference of opinion or of interpretations. I hope that at the earliest possible date such very important work will be done. In the meantime in case of differences of interpretations and also until they (the proposed doctrines and principles) can be worked out and codified for the common use of every government, I desire to say that the United States Government in all of its international associations and relationships and conduct will follow scrupulously the doctrines and policies which it has pursued since March 4 which are embodied in the different addresses of President Roosevelt since that time and in the recent peace address of myself on the 15th day of December before this Conference and in the law of nations as generally recognized and accepted".<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The delegates of Brazil and Peru recorded the following private vote with regard to article 11: "That they accept the doctrine in principle but that they do not consider it codifiable because there are some countries which have not yet signed the Anti-War Pact of Rio de Janeiro 4 of which this doctrine is a part and therefore it does not yet constitute positive international law suitable for codification".<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><em><span style="">Essential Documents are vital primary sources underpinning the foreign policy debate.</span></em><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <h3 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><span style=""><a href="http://www.worldhistoryblog.com/2008/05/flawed-montevideo-convention-of-1933.html"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Flawed Montevideo Convention of 1933</span></a> <o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">International law and the recognition of states is not always straight forward. The Montevideo Convention of 1933 is a clear example of this. In that year, the Montevidoe Convention was signed at <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Montevideo</st1:city>, <st1:country-region st="on">Uruguay</st1:country-region></st1:place>, on December 26 at the Seventh International Conference of American States.<br /><br />The essence of this treaty comes down to this:<br /><br /><strong><span style="">The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states. </span></strong><br /><br />The treaty was limited to 19 states and was never ratified into international law. However, it is often cited by any group (or person!) who meets this criteria as evidence that an entity should be treated as an independent sovereign nation. Just about every separatist group in the world cites this as evidence that they are already technically an independent nation-state. So do micronations.<br /><br />What is a micronation?<br /><br /><strong><span style="">A micronation (cybernation, fantasy country, model country, new country project, pseudonation, counternation, ephemeral state, online nation, and variants thereof) is an entity intended to replace, resemble, mock, or exist on equal footing with recognized independent states. Some micronations are created with serious intent, while others exist as a hobby or stunt. For the most part they exist only on paper, on the Internet, or in the minds of their creators and participants. A small number have also managed to achieve some degree of recognition. When they do, they converge to some degree with other organizing paradigms that offer, or seem to offer, political or infrastructural independence of some sort.</span></strong><b style=""><br /><br /></b>There are hundreds of micronations ought there. Most exist only as websites. However, some exist with real land territory as well. Some examples include <a href="http://www.principality-of-sealand.org/"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Government of the Principality of Sealand</span></a>, <a href="http://www.christiania.org/"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Christiania</span></a>, <a href="http://www.conchrepublic.com/"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Conch Republic</span></a>, and the <a href="http://www.melchizedek.com/"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Dominion of Melchizedek</span></a>. And according to the Montevideo Convention, these are all "states" worthy of international recognition.<br /><br />Despite how widely the Montevideo Convention is cited, it is ignored by the international community today. Under the definition of that treaty, anyone with a piece of real estate and a lawyer can produce a state. This is not very helpful under international law and is actually rather harmful. It dilutes the meaningfulness of international statehood to the level of absurdity.<br /><br />The way international law actually works is closer to the Declarative Theory of Statehood. In essence, that theory states that other sovereign nation-states have to recognize a state for it to be valid. Sorry to say, the abandoned platform off of the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">United Kingdom</st1:place></st1:country-region> which is Sealand does not qualify.</span></p><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: trebuchet ms;">Signatories<br /><br /></span><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The states that signed this convention are: </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">, </span><a style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">. However, as a restatement of customary international law, the Montevideo Convention merely codified existing legal norms and its principles and therefore does not apply merely to the signatories, but to all subjects of international law as a whole. </span><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, in the principal statement of its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badinter_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Badinter Committee">Badinter Committee</a>, follows the Montevideo Convention in its definition of a state: by having a territory, a population, and a political authority. The committee also found that the existence of states was a question of fact, while the recognition by other states was purely declaratory and not a determinative factor of statehood.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, although not a member of the European Union, adheres to the same principle, stating that "neither a political unit needs to be recognized to become a state, nor does a state have the obligation to recognize another one. At the same time, neither recognition is enough to create a state, nor does its absence abolish it."</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><br /><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-24700942734011462702008-07-22T07:30:00.000-07:002008-08-05T09:51:59.523-07:00Zimbabwe Conflict<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj39T0bScbfLC7nf_IsMnvgDdxmJMAkaCyggCmmfT4aw4tf0kqvGP6uxrehsLkwg5f97v_s_GwPq2mZU2NEMH2hSH6C9N0Z6n39Q4S2vtnWa3OZ9KZB6WmZ6__NZjl3faJzmXGRbhyphenhyphenRe14o/s1600-h/zim+ban.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj39T0bScbfLC7nf_IsMnvgDdxmJMAkaCyggCmmfT4aw4tf0kqvGP6uxrehsLkwg5f97v_s_GwPq2mZU2NEMH2hSH6C9N0Z6n39Q4S2vtnWa3OZ9KZB6WmZ6__NZjl3faJzmXGRbhyphenhyphenRe14o/s320/zim+ban.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5231077317818959202" border="0" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmKQqlXk4pz3Zcr-hUlt4pE5ChAwU2SQmK6TyOXUdp9zWyEwkLs41qxOrapjTDpd1S_e2wByRdHy5vjvwLXqWYZTJ8ct_5cktk6XCEGyDkB3hCL_QD2wNfMKJtQpk54KmFJF2by1pzCEh1/s1600-h/mugabe.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmKQqlXk4pz3Zcr-hUlt4pE5ChAwU2SQmK6TyOXUdp9zWyEwkLs41qxOrapjTDpd1S_e2wByRdHy5vjvwLXqWYZTJ8ct_5cktk6XCEGyDkB3hCL_QD2wNfMKJtQpk54KmFJF2by1pzCEh1/s320/mugabe.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5231077070631207346" border="0" /></a><br /><h1 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";font-size:12;" >Economy of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region><o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The <b>Economy of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Zimbabwe</span></a></b> is collapsing under the weight of economic mismanagement, resulting in 85% unemployment and spiraling <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation" title="Hyperinflation"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">hyperinflation</span></a>. The economy poorly transitioned after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Robert Mugabe</span></a>'s leadership, deteriorating from one of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa" title="Africa"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Africa</span></a>'s strongest economies to one of the world's worst. Inflation has surpassed that of all other nations at over 2,000,000% (although it is impossible to calculate an accurate value), with the next highest in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma" title="Burma"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Burma</span></a> at 39.5%. The government has attributed the economy's poor performance to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_Democracy_and_Economic_Recovery_Act_of_2001" title="Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">ZDERA</span></a>, a <st1:country-region st="on">US</st1:country-region> congressional act hinging debt relief for <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> on democratic reform, and freezing the international assets of the ruling class. It currently has the lowest GDP real growth rate in an independent country and 3rd in total (behind Palestinian territories.)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The country has reserves of metallurgical-grade <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromite" title="Chromite"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">chromite</span></a>. Other commercial mineral deposits include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal" title="Coal"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">coal</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">asbestos</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper" title="Copper"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">copper</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">nickel</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold" title="Gold"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">gold</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">platinum</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" title="Iron"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">iron</span></a> ore. However, its ongoing political turmoil and the world's highest rate of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" title="AIDS"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">AIDS</span></a> infection have greatly hampered its progress. Mugabe's policies towards <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">land reform</span></a> have led to internal upheaval and population displacement, high inflation, and an inability of the country's citizens to feed themselves.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style=";font-size:12;" >1980’s</span></span><span style=";font-size:12;" ><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Following the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster_House_Agreement" title="Lancaster House Agreement"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Lancaster House Agreement</span></a> in December 1979, the transition to majority rule in early 1980, and the lifting of sanctions, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Real growth for 1980-1981 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country's mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered negative of about minus 3% in 1987 primarily because of drought and foreign exchange crisis faced by the country <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDP" title="GDP"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">GDP</span></a> grew on average by about 4.5% between 1980 and 1990. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><a name="Infrastructure_and_resources"></a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <h2 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style=";font-size:12;" >Infrastructure and Resources</span></span><span style=";font-size:12;" ><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Zimbabwe</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style=""> has adequate internal transportation and electrical power networks. Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centres, and rail lines managed by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Railways_of_Zimbabwe" title="National Railways of Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">National Railways of Zimbabwe</span></a> tie it into an extensive central <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African" title="African"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">African</span></a> railroad network with all its neighbours. In non-drought years, it has adequate electrical power, mainly generated by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kariba_Dam" title="Kariba Dam"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Kariba Dam</span></a> on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambezi_River" title="Zambezi River"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Zambezi River</span></a> but augmented since 1983 by large thermal plants adjacent to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankie" title="Wankie"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Wankie</span></a> coal field. As of 2006, crumbling infrastructure and lack of spare parts for generators and coal mining means that Zimbabwe imports 40% of its power - 100 megawatts from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of Congo"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Democratic Republic of Congo</span></a>, 200 megawatts from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Mozambique</span></a>, up to 450 from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">South Africa</span></a>, and 300 megawatts from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Zambia</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Independent analyst put the inflation rate at +165 000% a figure which critics claim is far less than the actual inflation rate. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity" title="Parity"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Parity</span></a> rates of measurement show point towards a figure of close to 500 000% but these cannot be cited for obvious reasons. The use of oppressive laws as manifested in the likes of the infamous National Price and Income Commission has seen the country at the bottom list of the of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_Bank_Index&action=edit&redlink=1" title="World Bank Index (page does not exist)"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">World Bank Index</span></a>. Recently the President of the republic signed the Empowerment bill whose effect is to transfer ownership from all foreigners into the hands of the local people something that has already had its toil on the DI. The telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult to obtain.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Agriculture</span></a> was once the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. Due to large scale eviction of white farmers and the government's land reform efforts, this is no longer the case. Reliable crop estimates are not available due to the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> government's attempts to hide the realities following the evictions. The ruling party banned maize imports, stating record crops for the year of 2004.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The <st1:place st="on"><st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:placetype> of <st1:placename st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:placename></st1:place> estimates that between 2000 and 2007 agricultural production decreased by 51%. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Maize</span></a> was the country's largest crop prior to the farm evictions. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Tobacco</span></a> was the largest export crop followed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">cotton</span></a>. Poor government management has exacerbated meager harvests caused by drought and floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls beginning in 2001. The land redistribution has been generally condemned in the developed world. It has found considerable support in Africa and a few supporters among African-American activists, but <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Jesse Jackson</span></a> commented during a visit to <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region> in June 2006, "Land reform has long been a noble goal to achieve but it has to be done in a way that minimises trauma. The process has to attract investors rather than scare them away. What is required in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> is democratic rule, democracy is lacking in the country and that is the major cause of this economic melt down.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><a name="2000.E2.80.932008"></a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <h2 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style=";font-size:12;" >2000–2008 </span></span><span style=";font-size:12;" ><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>In recent years, poor management of the economy and political turmoil has led to considerable economic hardship. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" title="Robert Mugabe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Government of Zimbabwe</span></a>'s chaotic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">land reform program</span></a>, recurrent interference with, and intimidation of the judiciary, as well as maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates has led to a sharp drop in investor confidence.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_1" title="November 1"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">November 1</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989" title="1989"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">1989</span></a> a former government minister in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Rhodesia</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Walker" title="Denis Walker"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Denis Walker</span></a>, produced a paper in London for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Monday_Club" title="Conservative Monday Club"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Conservative Monday Club</span></a>'s Foreign Affairs Committee on <i>Land Reform in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Zimbabwe</span></a></i>. In his last paragraph he stated that "once the land has been redistributed, the commercial farms will be broken up, the remaining white farmers reduced by exile or imprisonment; <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s government, already morally bankrupt, will decline towards economic collapse."<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Between 2000 and December 2007, the national economy contracted by as much as 40%; inflation vaulted to over 66,000%, and there were persistent shortages of foreign exchange, local currency, fuel, medicine, and food. GDP per capita dropped by 40%, agricultural output dropped by 51% and industrial production dropped by 47%.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated. In 1998, direct foreign investment was US $400 million. In 2007, that number had fallen to US $30 million.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Billions were spent in the country's involvement in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">war</span></a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Democratic Republic of the Congo</span></a>. Price controls have been imposed on a wide range of products including food (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize" title="Maize"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">maize</span></a>, bread, steak), fuel, medicines, soap, electrical appliances, yarn, window frames, building sand, agricultural machinery, fertilisers and school textbooks.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">Mugabe's supporters maintain that economic hardship has been brought about by Western-backed economic sanctions instituted through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">United Nations</span></a>. However, the only sanctions in place are personal sanctions against about 130 senior Zanu-PF figures; there are no sanctions against trade or investment with <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">As of February 2004 <st1:place st="on"><st1:country-region st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region></st1:place>'s foreign debt repayments ceased, resulting in compulsory suspension from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">International Monetary Fund</span></a> (IMF). This, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">United Nations</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">World Food Programme</span></a> stopping its food aid due to insufficient donations from the world community, has forced the government into borrowing from local sources.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style="">Zimbabwe</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style=""> began experiencing severe foreign exchange shortages, exacerbated by the difference between the official rate and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">black market</span></a> rate in 2000. In 2004 a system of auctioning scarce foreign currency for importers was introduced, which temporarily led to a slight reduction in the foreign currency crisis, but by mid 2005 foreign currency shortages were once again chronic. The currency was devalued by the central bank twice, first to 9,000 to the <st1:country-region st="on">US</st1:country-region>$, and then to 17,500 to the <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">US</st1:place></st1:country-region>$ on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_20" title="July 20"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">20 July</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005" title="2005"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2005</span></a>, but at that date it was reported that that was only half the rate available on the black market.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In July 2005 <st1:country-region st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:country-region> was reported to be appealing to the South African government for US$1 billion of emergency loans, but despite regular rumours that the idea was being discussed no financial support has been obtained from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">South Africa</st1:place></st1:country-region>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">The official <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwean_dollar" title="Zimbabwean dollar"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Zimbabwean dollar</span></a> exchange rate had been frozen at Z$101,196 per U.S. dollar since early 2006, but as of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_27" title="July 27"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">27 July</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2006</span></a> the parallel (black market) rate has reached Z$550,000 per U.S. dollar. By comparison, 10 years earlier, the rate of exchange was only Z$9.13 per USD.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In August 2006 the RBZ revalued the Zimbabwean Dollar by 1000 ZWD to 1 (revalued) dollar. At the same time <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> devalued the Zim Dollar by 60% against the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USD" title="USD"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">USD</span></a>. New official exchange rate revalued ZWD 250 per USD. The parallel market rate was about revalued ZWD 1,200 to 1,500 per USD (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_28" title="September 28"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">28 September</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2006</span></a>).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In November 2006 it was announced that sometime around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_1" title="December 1"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">December 1</span></a> there would be a further devaluation and that the official exchange rate would change to revalued ZWD 750 per USD. This never materialized. However, the parallel market immediately reacted to this news with the parallel rate falling to ZWD 2,000 per USD (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_18" title="November 18"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">18 November</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2006</span></a>) and by year end it had fallen to ZWD 3,000 per USD.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_1" title="April 1"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">April 1</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2007</span></a> the parallel market was asking ZWD 30,000 for $1 USD. By year end, it was down to about ZWD 2,000,000. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_18" title="January 18"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">18 January</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2008</span></a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_Zimbabwe" title="Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe</span></a> began to issue higher denomination ZWD bearer cheques (a banknote with an expiry date), including $10 million bearer cheques - each of which was worth less than US $1.35 (70p Sterling; 0.90 Euro) on the parallel market at the time of first issue. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_4" title="April 4"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">April 4</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2008</span></a> the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Bank_of_Zimbabwe" title="Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe</span></a> introduced new $25 million and $50 million bearer cheques. At the time of first issue they were worth US$0.70 & US$1.40 on the parallel market respectively.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1" title="May 1"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">May 1</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2008</span></a>, the RBZ announced that the dollar would be allowed to float in value subject to some conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_6" title="May 6"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">May 6</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2008</span></a>, the RBZ issued new $100 million and $250 million bearer cheques. At the date of first issue the $250 million bearer cheque was worth approximately US$1.30 on the parallel market. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_15" title="May 15"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">May 15</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2008</span></a>, a new $500 million bearer cheque was issued by the RBZ. At time of first issue it was worth US$1.93. In a widely unreported parallel move, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_15" title="May 15"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">May 15</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">2008</span></a>, the RBZ issued three "special agro-cheques" with face values $5 billion (at time of first issue - $19.30), $25 billion ($96.50) & $50 billion ($193). It is further reported that the new agro-cheques can be used to buy any goods and services like the bearer cheques.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><a name="Government_response"></a><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></h3> <h3 style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style=";font-size:12;" >Government Response</span></span><span style=";font-size:12;" ><o:p></o:p></span></h3> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style=""><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>The 2007 Empowerment Bill to increase local ownership of economy is being drafted for presentation to parliament in July 2007. It is signed into law by President Mugabe on 7th March 2008. The law requires all White or foreign owned business to hand over 51 percent of their business to indigenous Zimbabweans. Many economists predict this will plunge the country into deeper economic woes.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="">In response to skyrocketing inflation the government has introduced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_controls" title="Price controls"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">price controls</span></a>, but enforcement has been largely unsuccessful. Police have been sent in to enforce requirements that shopkeepers sell goods at a loss. This has resulted in hundreds of shop owners being arrested under accusations of not having lowered prices enough. Because of this, basic goods no longer appear on supermarket shelves and the supply of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrol" title="Petrol"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">petrol</span></a> is limited. This has diminished public transport. However, goods can usually be had for a high rate on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">black market</span></a>.</span></p><p face="trebuchet ms" style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"> </p><h2 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";font-size:12;color:black;" >How the UN is feeding tyranny in Robert Mugabe's <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";font-size:12;color:black;" ><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"></st1:place></st1:country-region> </span><span style=";font-size:12;" ><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >TheTimes<br />March24,2008<br /><br />MichaelHolman<br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" > Here we go again! Seven years after the World Food Programme helped to save </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > Robert Mugabe's political bacon by unilaterally and unconditionally deciding </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > to feed his starving people, the UN agency is making the same mistake.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > At the end of 2001 <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s leader was in trouble. Presidential elections </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > were looming. The consequences of his land grab were becoming clear. After </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > denying that hunger was imminent, Mugabe finally admitted that half a </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > million Zimbabweans faced famine.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > At this point the WFP stepped in to feed the country - but without an </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > insistence on minimum conditions, such as an end to the land policy which </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > created the crisis that donors sought to alleviate.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > The outcome of the operation was predictable: food aid became </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > institutionalised as the land grab continued. The WFP has fed millions of </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > Zimbabweans and Mugabe has been cushioned from the consequences of his </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > policies.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > Seven years later history repeats itself. Mugabe is fighting for his </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > political life. Elections are imminent. And he has been forced to admit that </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > his country is starving. But again, help is at hand from the same source.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > In a statement last week the WFP announced that it "plans to complete this </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > month's food distributions in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> earlier than usual to avoid any </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > overlap with the final run-up to the presidential and parliamentary </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > elections on 29 March". In other words, in time for Mr Mugabe to use the </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > resources of the State to distribute the food as he deems fit.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > The WFP claims that it has "zero tolerance for political interference . . . </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > in the distribution of its food assistance," a claim as pompous as it is </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > hollow. For a start, it should be unacceptable to the WFP that reporters </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > from the very countries who pay for the food should be banned from <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>. </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > It is also unacceptable that election monitors are similarly proscribed.</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > No one underestimates the UN agency's predicament. What if Mr Mugabe </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > responds to a WFP attempt to impose conditions by choosing to let his people </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > starve rather than accept foreign reporters, and the presence of independent </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > monitors?</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"> But there is another question to ask:</span> <span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-style: italic;"></span></span>If Mr Mugabe's political life is in </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > the balance, could these terms prove the straw that will break his back? If </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > he agrees, the better the chance that democracy prevails on March 29. If he </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > refuses, might this tip the scales towards his overthrow?</span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > Selecting and applying the conditions that should accompany food aid is no </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > easy task. But the record suggests that the naïve and unconditional </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > generosity the WFP has displayed has done long-term harm, whatever </span><br /><span style=";color:black;" > short-term good. </span><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="center"><span style=""> <hr align="center" size="2" width="100%"> </span></div> <h2 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on"><span style=";font-size:12;color:black;" >Zimbabwe</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style=";font-size:12;color:black;" > Opposition Leader </span><span style=";font-size:12;" ><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai held his last election rally in <st1:city st="on">Harare</st1:city> Sunday and promised that a new <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>, driven by love and not fear, is on the horizon. Mr. Tsvangirai, enjoying a huge surge of popularity around the country, is standing against President Robert Mugabe in elections next Saturday. Peta Thornycoft reports for VOA from <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Harare</st1:place></st1:city>.</span><span style=""><o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="width: 6.05pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="right" border="0" cellpadding="0" width="8"> <tbody><tr style="height: 10.55pt;"> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; height: 10.55pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p><br /></td> </tr> <tr style="height: 11.15pt;"> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; height: 11.15pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Tsvangiriai, founding president of the Movement for Democratic Change, told about 20,000 supporters gathered on the edge of the city they should go out and vote. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >The rally was held in an open field because the police denied the MDC access to any of the city's stadiums, according to party officials.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Nevertheless, the rally was well organized. People sang popular MDC songs, some of which mock Mr. Mugabe and his colleagues in the ruling ZANU-PF party.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Tsvangirai told the crowd that Zimbabweans are beyond fear now. He said the road for the opposition has been long and painful, but that victory is at hand.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >"We will stand together, we will stand for food, we will stand for jobs, for justice," he said. "We will stand for freedom as one, for a new <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region>. We will line up at those polling stations and we are going to vote in our millions."<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Tsvangirai said people want jobs, food and a decent life, and that the current economic chaos was caused by bad government. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >He praised President Mugabe for delivering <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Zimbabwe</st1:place></st1:country-region> from colonial rule, but said it was now time for the 84-year-old leader to go. He said that so many people would vote for the MDC next Saturday that any rigging and cheating would be overcome.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >"We expect the enemies of justice to engage in every trick in the book. We are ready for them," Tsvangirai said. "We are ready for those that would like to subvert the people's victory."<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="width: 6.05pt; font-family: trebuchet ms;" align="left" border="0" cellpadding="0" width="8"> <tbody><tr style="height: 15.5pt;"> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; height: 15.5pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p><br /></td> </tr> <tr style="height: 14.65pt;"> <td style="padding: 0.75pt; height: 14.65pt;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p><br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >On Saturday, during rallies in high density suburbs in <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Harare</st1:city></st1:place>, President Mugabe blamed businessmen for what he called exorbitant prices.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >He also said that after the elections he would nationalize British-owned companies and ensure that new legislation giving majority ownership of all businesses to black Zimbabweans is quickly implemented.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Zimbabweans are, for the first time, voting in four elections simultaneously including presidential, parliamentary and local government contests. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >On Sunday, civil rights leaders briefed a group of observers from the Southern African Development Community or SADC.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"><span style=";color:black;" >Western observers are not being allowed to monitor these elections. And the government says it will not allow any white Western journalists to cover them. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;font-family:";font-size:12;" ><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x007c__x007c_CPIMAGE_x003a_441802_x007c_" spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe addresses the congregation at a church in Bulawayo, about 500 kilometers south of Harare, 23 Mar 2008" style="'width:157.5pt;height:127.5pt;mso-wrap-distance-left:1.5pt;"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\ralph.AMD\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\10\clip_image001.jpg" href="http://www.voanews.com/english/images/AP_Zimbabwe_Robert_Mugabe_23mar08_210.jpg"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/ralph.AMD/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/10/clip_image001.jpg" alt="Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe addresses the congregation at a church in Bulawayo, about 500 kilometers south of Harare, 23 Mar 2008" shapes="_x007c__x007c_CPIMAGE_x003a_441802_x007c_" border="0" height="170" hspace="2" vspace="2" width="210" /><!--[endif]--></span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-58343989369016529112008-07-13T01:42:00.000-07:002008-07-13T05:17:00.130-07:00Archipelagic Doctrine<div style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;" class="content">The archipelagic principle is a fundamental pillar of the Philippine concept of national territory.<br /><br />The guiding principle for resolving the issue about offshore islands is the archipelagic principle, which is enshrined in Art. 1 of the 1987 Constitution and has been one of the fundamental pillars of the Philippine concept of national territory. Since the 1950s, the Philippines has pushed this principle, which led to the so-called "Archipelagic Doctrine" in international law and has become the legal and political basis for considering our 7,107 islands as one political unit. The "Archipelagic Doctrine" is one of our most important contributions to the international legal system; without it, the widely scattered islands of our archipelago will be separated by international waters, and the Filipino nation will be deprived of the large tracts of marine resources between the islands that it has claimed since its inception.<br /><br />Central to the archipelagic principle is the concept of equality between landmasses, where each island regardless of size is treated in the same manner as all others. Without such equality of treatment, small outlying islands like Tawi-Tawi and Batanes may be considered as mere territories not entitled to provincial or municipal status; at most they may be mere attachments to some province located in one of the 10 major landmasses of the country. Equally important to the archipelagic principle is the concept of unity between land and water, where the water forms the link between the disparate islands. The proper application of the doctrine demands that, as a national policy, we should treat all of our islands in the same manner, not allowing some of them to be insignificant as if they were mere parts of the water, and that we should not allow the waters to create highly fragmented political units.<br /><br />Our foreign policy and legal positions before the international community cannot be inconsistent with our national law and policy. If we were not to apply the archipelagic principle to the component units of our country (the LGUs), then we would undermine the most fundamental pillar of our concept of national territory. We might as well allow foreign countries to also treat our outlying islands as insignificant pockets of land less important than the largest islands of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao; and the waters in between as thoroughfares open to everyone.<br /><br /></div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">source: www.wikipedia.org</span>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-51606941533005365622008-07-13T01:15:00.000-07:002008-07-13T01:37:50.611-07:00Treaty of Paris (1898)<p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> Treaty of Paris</p><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (1898)<br /></p> <div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><a name="Senate_Debate_on_Ratification_of_the_Treaty" id="Senate_Debate_on_Ratification_of_the_Treaty"></a></p> <div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div> <div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Treaty of Paris, signed on 10 December 1898, between <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/spain" class="alnk" target="_top" name="&lid=ALINK" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">Spain</a> and the United States, ended one war and set the stage for another. Following the U.S. military victories at <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/manila-bay" class="alnk" target="_top" name="&lid=ALINK" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">Manila Bay</a> in May 1898 and in <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/cuba" class="alnk" target="_top" name="&lid=ALINK" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">Cuba</a> in early July, Madrid asked for an armistice that began in August. Peace negotiations followed in Paris, the main sticking point being the future of the <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/philippines" class="alnk" target="_top" name="&lid=ALINK" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">Philippine Islands</a>, a <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/spanish-empire" class="alnk" target="_top" name="&lid=ALINK" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">Spanish colony</a> since 1564. President <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/william-mckinley" class="ilnk" target="_top" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">William McKinley</a> insisted that Spain cede sovereignty to the United States. The treaty gave the United States temporary control over Cuba (Congress had rejected annexation in <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/the-teller-amendment" class="ilnk" target="_top" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">the Teller Amendment</a> when it declared war) and actual possession of <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/university-of-puerto-rico" class="alnk" target="_top" name="&lid=ALINK" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">Puerto Rico</a>, Guam, and the Philippines. Spain received $20 million.<br /><br />The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in February 1899 by one vote more than the necessary two‐thirds. By that time, some Filipino nationalists, angry at U.S. intentions, had launched attacks that opened <a href="http://www.answers.com/topic/the-philippine-war" class="ilnk" target="_top" onclick="assignParam('navinfo','method|4'+getLinkTextForCookie(this));">the Philippine War</a>, which lasted several years, became a bitter guerrilla struggle, and ended in defeat for the native fighters. The Treaty of Paris marked the high tide of late nineteenth‐century colonialism in the United States. The euphoria of victory over Spain turned into significant popular unhappiness and doubt about a protracted war against the Filipinos.<br /><br />source: www.answers.com<br /><br /></div> <p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The <b>Treaty of Paris of 1898</b>, signed on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_10" title="December 10">December 10</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1898" title="1898">1898</a>, ended the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish-American_War" title="Spanish-American War">Spanish-American War</a>.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">American and Spanish delegates met in Paris on October 1, 1898 to produce a treaty that would bring an end to the war after six months of hostilities. The American commission consisted of William R. Day, Sen. Cushman K. Davis, Sen. William P. Frye, Sen. George Gray, and Whitelaw Reid. The Spanish commission included the Spanish diplomats Don Eugenio Montero Ríos, Don Buenaventura de Abarzuza, Don José de Garnica, Don Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia, and Don Rafael Cerero, as well as a French diplomat, Jules Cambon.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Treaty of Paris provided that Cuba would become independent from Spain but the US congress made sure it would be under US control. Specifically, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over - and title to - Cuba. Upon Cuba's evacuation by Spain, it was to be occupied by the United States, and the United States would assume and discharge any obligations that under international law could result from the fact of its occupation.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Treaty also assured that Spain would cede to the United States the island of Puerto Rico and other islands then under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, as well as the island of Guam in the Marianas or Ladrones.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The major conflict concerned the situation of the Philippines. Spanish commissioners argued that Manila had surrendered after the armistice and therefore the Philippines could not be demanded as a war conquest, but they eventually yielded because they had no other choice, and the U.S. ultimately paid Spain 20 million dollars for possession of the Philippines. The Treaty specified that Spain would cede to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the a specified line.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The controversial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaty</a> was the subject of debate in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="US Senate">US Senate</a> during the winter of 1898-1899, and it was approved on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_6" title="February 6">February 6</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1899" title="1899">1899</a> by a vote 57 to 27<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;"></span></sup>, only one vote more than the two-thirds majority required. Only 2 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> voted against ratification <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frisbie_Hoar" title="George Frisbie Hoar">George Frisbie Hoar</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Pryor_Hale" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Pryor Hale">Eugene Pryor Hale</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>.</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In accordance with the treaty <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>,</p><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><ul style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><li>gave up all rights to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>.</li><li>surrendered <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> and gave up its possessions in the West Indies.</li><li>surrendered the island of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> to the United States.</li><li>surrendered the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> to the United States.</li></ul><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </div><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The defeat put an end to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">America</a> and, one year later in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Pacific Ocean</a> (after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German-Spanish_Treaty_%281899%29" title="German-Spanish Treaty (1899)">German-Spanish Treaty (1899)</a>), and marked the beginning of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_overseas_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States overseas expansion">age of United States colonial power</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify; font-family: trebuchet ms; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">source: www.wikipidia.org</p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-20380391498208615892008-07-13T01:07:00.000-07:002008-07-13T01:08:33.153-07:00National Territory of the Philippines<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><strong>Article 1 of the 1987 Constitution:</strong></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the </span><st1:country-region style="font-family: trebuchet ms;" st="on"><st1:place st="on">Philippines</st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="font-family: trebuchet ms;">.</span></div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-18272477218666301262008-07-06T01:23:00.000-07:002008-07-06T01:58:47.727-07:00United Nations<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />United Nations<br /></span><span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">(source : united nations website)</span><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />S<span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;">ecretary - General</span><br /></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >Ban Ki-moon</span><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> of the Republic of Korea, the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations, brings to his post 37 years of service both in government and on the global stage.</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> . Mr. Ban has longstanding ties with the United Nations, dating back to 1975, when he worked for the Foreign Ministry’s United Nations division. That work expanded over the years, with assignments as First Secretary at the ROK’s Permanent Mission to the UN in New York, Director of the UN Division at the ministry’s headquarters in Seoul, and Ambassador to Vienna, during which time, in 1999, he served as Chairman of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization. In 2001-2002, as Chef-de-Cabinet during the ROK’s Presidency of the General Assembly, he facilitated the prompt adoption of the first resolution of the session, condemning the terrorist attacks of 11 September, and undertook a number of initiatives aimed at strengthening the Assembly’s functioning, thereby helping to turn a session that started out in crisis and confusion into one in which a number of important reforms were adopted.</span><br /><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> . Mr. Ban has also been actively involved in issues relating to inter-Korean relations. In 1992, as Special Advisor to the Foreign Minister, he served as Vice Chair of the South-North Joint Nuclear Control Commission following the adoption of the historic Joint Declaration on the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. In September 2005, as Foreign Minister, he played a leading role in bringing about another landmark agreement aimed at promoting peace and stability on the Korean peninsula with the adoption at the Six Party Talks of the Joint Statement on resolving the North Korean nuclear issue.</span><br /></div><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Deputy Secretary - General</span><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Rosalyn Higgins</span>, Baroness Higgins, </span><a title="Order of the British Empire" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >DBE</span></a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >, </span><a title="Queen's Counsel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >QC</span></a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" > (b. in </span><a title="London" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >London</span></a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >, </span><a title="1937" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >1937</span></a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >) is the President of the </span><a title="International Court of Justice" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" >International Court of Justice</span></a><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:trebuchet ms;" ><em>.</em> Higgins was the first female judge to be appointed to the ICJ, and was elected President in 2006.</span><br /></div> <div align="justify"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"> . As Foreign Minister, Dr. Migiro spearheaded Tanzania 's engagement in the pursuit of peace, security and development in the Great Lakes Region. She served as Chair of the Council of Ministers' meetings of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region, a process that culminated into a Pact on Security, Stability and Development in the Great Lakes Region.</span> <span class="post-author vcard"></span><span class="post-timestamp"><a class="timestamp-link" href="http://pil-rizalyn.blogspot.com/2008/07/united-nations.html" rel="bookmark" title="permanent link"><abbr class="published" title="2008-07-02T00:42:00-07:00"></abbr></a></span></div><span class="post-timestamp"> </span> <span class="star-ratings"> </span> <span class="post-comment-link"> </span><div align="justify"><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"></span></div><h2 style="font-family: trebuchet ms;"> Functions and Powers of the General Assembly </h2> <p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> Established in 1945 under the Charter of the United Nations, the General Assembly occupies a central position as the chief deliberative, policy-making and representative organ of the United Nations. Comprising all 192 Members of the United Nations, it provides a forum for multilateral discussion of the full spectrum of international issues covered by the Charter. It also plays a significant role in the process of standard-setting and the codification of international law. The Assembly meets in regular session intensively from September to December each year, and thereafter as required. </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h3 style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> Functions and powers of the General Assembly</h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> According to the Charter of the United Nations, the General Assembly may: </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><li> Consider and make recommendations on the general principles of cooperation for maintaining international peace and security, including disarmament;</li><li>Discuss any question relating to international peace and security and, except where a dispute or situation is currently being discussed by the Security Council, make recommendations on it;</li><li>Discuss, with the same exception, and make recommendations on any questions within the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers and functions of any organ of the United Nations;</li><li>Initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political cooperation, the development and codification of international law, the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms and international collaboration in the economic, social, humanitarian, cultural, educational and health fields;</li><li>Make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation that might impair friendly relations among nations;</li><li>Receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other United Nations organs;</li><li>Consider and approve the United Nations budget and establish the financial assessments of Member States;</li><li>Elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council and the members of other United Nations councils and organs and, on the recommendation of the Security Council, appoint the Secretary-General.</li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> Pursuant to its "Uniting for Peace" resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), the Assembly may also take action if the Security Council fails to act, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member, in a case where there appears to be a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression. The Assembly can consider the matter immediately with a view to making recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain or restore international peace and security (see "Special sessions and emergency special sessions" below). </p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> While the Assembly is empowered to make only non-binding recommendations to States on international issues within its competence, it has, nonetheless, initiated actions -- political, economic, humanitarian, social and legal—which have affected the lives of millions of people throughout the world. The landmark Millennium Declaration, adopted in 2000, and the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document, reflect the commitment of Member States to reach specific goals to attain peace, security and disarmament along with development and poverty eradication; safeguard human rights and promote the rule of law; protect our common environment; meet the special needs of Africa; and strengthen the United Nations.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"> Each Member State in the Assembly has one vote. Votes taken on designated important issues, such as recommendations on peace and security and the election of Security Council members, require a two-thirds majority of Member States, but other questions are decided by simple majority.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: trebuchet ms; text-align: justify;"><br /></p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-69269313181499373932008-06-29T15:29:00.000-07:002008-07-05T03:58:58.056-07:00Jeffry Liang vs. People of the Philippines<div style="font-family: courier new;" class="entry"> <div class="snap_preview"> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Facts: </span>Jeffry Liang, a Chinese national who was employed as an economist by the Asian Development Bank who was alleged by Joyce Cabal, a member of the clerical staff of Asian Development Bank of defamatory words.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">The Metropolitan Trial Court of Mandaluyong City acting pursuant to an advice from the Department of Foreign Affairs that petitioner enjoyed immunity from legal process, dismissed the criminal Information against him.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;">On petition for certiorari and mandamus filed by the people, the RTC of Pasig annuled and set aside the order of Metropolitan Trial Court dismissing the case, so the Mr. Liang brought a petition for review.</p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"><br /></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Issue:</span> Whether or not the statements allegedly made by petitioner, Mr. Liang were uttered while in the performance of his official functions.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><br /></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ruling: </span>Denied the petition for review in the essence that the immunity granted to officers and staff of the Asian Development Bank is not absolute; it is limited to acts performed in an official capacity. Further, the court ruled that the immunity cannot cover the commission of a crime such as slander or oral defamation in the name official duty.</p> </div> </div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-590548390407596902008-06-27T06:32:00.000-07:002008-07-05T04:02:08.903-07:00Secretary of Justice vs. Lantion, 322 SCRA 160 January 28, 2008<div style="text-align: justify;font-family:courier new;" class="entry"> <div class="snap_preview"><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Facts:</span> Secretary Of Justice Franklin Drilon, representing the Government of the Republic of the Philippines, signed in Manila the “extradition Treaty Between the Government of the Philippines and the Government of the U.S.A. The Philippine Senate ratified the said Treaty.</p> <p>On June 18, 1999, the Department of Justice received from the Department of Foreign Affairs U.S Note Verbale No. 0522 containing a request for the extradition of private respondent Mark Jiminez to the United States.</p> <p>On the same day petitioner designate and authorizing a panel of attorneys to take charge of and to handle the case. Pending evaluation of the aforestated extradition documents, Mark Jiminez through counsel, wrote a letter to Justice Secretary requesting copies of the official extradition request from the U.S Government and that he be given ample time to comment on the request after he shall have received copies of the requested papers but the petitioner denied the request for the consistency of Article 7 of the RP-US Extradition Treaty stated in Article 7 that the Philippine Government must present the interests of the United States in any proceedings arising out of a request for extradition.</p> <p style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></p> <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Issue: </span>Whether or not to uphold a citizen’s basic due process rights or the governments ironclad duties under a treaty.</p><p><br /></p> <p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ruling: </span>The human rights of person, whether citizen or alien , and the rights of the accused guaranteed in our Constitution should take precedence over treaty rights claimed by a contracting state. The duties of the government to the individual deserve preferential consideration when they collide with its treaty obligations to the government of another state. This is so although we recognize treaties as a source of binding obligations under generally accepted principles of international law incorporated in our Constitution as part of the law of the land.</p> <p>The doctrine of incorporation is applied whenever municipal tribunals are confronted with situation in which there appears to be a conflict between a rule of international law and the provision of the constitution or statute of the local state.</p><p>Petition is dismissed.<br /></p> </div> </div>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4135598369244192046.post-80559580705517268372008-06-27T06:31:00.000-07:002008-07-05T04:04:22.960-07:00J.B.L. Reyes vs. Bagatsing, GR No. 65366 October 25, 1983<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:courier new;" >Facts : </span><span style="font-family: courier new;">Petitioner, retired Justice JB .L Reyes filed a petition to respondent, Mayor Ramon Bagatsing, the city mayor of manila that on behalf of anti-bases coalition sought a permit from the city of manila to hold a peaceful march and rally on october 26, 1983 from 2.00 to 5.00 in the afternoon, starting from the luneta, a public park, to the gates of united states embassy, hardly two blocks away. Once there, and in an open space of the public property, a short program would be held.</span><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:courier new;"><br />On october 20, 1983 the petitioner filed a suit for mandamus with alternative prayer for writ of preliminary mandatory injunction because due to the fact that as of that date, petitioner had not been informed of any action taken on his request on behalf of the organization to hold a rally. On october 25, 1983, the answer of respondent mayor was filed on his behalf by assistant solicitor general eduardo g. montenegro. It turned out that on october 19, suc permit was denied.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-family:courier new;"></span><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:courier new;" >Issues :</span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;font-family:courier new;" ><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:courier new;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family:courier new;">1. Whether or not</span><span style="font-family:courier new;"><span style="font-family:courier new;"> holding a rally in front of the US embassy would be applicable or a violation of Ordinance no.7295 of the city of manila.</span><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;font-family:courier new;" ><br /></span><span style="font-family:courier new;">2. Whether or not the denial of the exercise of the constitutional rights of free speech and peaceably assembly was justified by clear and present danger.</span><br /></div><br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:courier new;" >Ruling : </span><span style="font-family:courier new;">The petition was granted. The Supreme Court granted the mandatory injunction allowing the proposed march and rally. The court found that there was no clear and present danger of a substantive evil to a legitimate public interest that would justify the denial of the exercise of the constitutional rights of free speech and peaceably assembly.</span><br /></div><p style="font-family: courier new; text-align: justify;">Our country is signatory of the Vienna Convention. It is binding in our laws. The second paragraph of its Article 22 that the receiving state is under a special duty to take appropriate steps tp protect the premise of the mission against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any disturbance of the peace of the mission or impairment of its dignity. The constitution adopts the generally accepted principles of international law as part of the law of the land. That being the case, if there were clear and present danger of any intrusion or damage, or disturbance of the of the peace of the mission, or impairment of its dignity, there would be a justification for the denial of the permit insofar as the terminal point would be the embassy.</p>Ralph Cajeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12243473892762957492noreply@blogger.com0